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Indo-European Roots

Work-in-progress

ab- 'water, river'

Reconstructed from Latin amnis* (from ab-ni-) 'river', Old Irish ab 'river'
Suffixed form ab-ola in Abola (Latium)

abh- 'quick, abrupt'

Reconstructed from Greek aphar* 'immediately, velocity', Old Church Slavonic abuje 'immediately'
Suffixed form *abh-el in Afilae (Latium)

abhro- 'strong, mighty'

Reconstructed from Middle Irish abor-* 'very', Old Icelandic afar- 'very'
Suffixed U-stem *abhro-us-to in Aprustum (Bruttium)

abel- 'apple'

Reconstructed from Old Irish ubull* (Common Celtic ablu) 'apple', Crimean Gothic apel* 'apple', Latvian abuols (abol-) 'apple', Old Bulgarian jabluko* 'apple'
O-grade form abola- in Abola (Latium)
Suffixed full-grade form abel-na in Abella, Abellinum (Hirpinia)

ad(u)- 'water current'

Reconstructed from Avestan adhu-* 'stream, channel' and river names.
Suffixed S-stem ad(u)es-ia in Atessa (Samnium)
Suffixed S-stem *ad(u)es-no- in Aternus fl. (Samnium)

Extension: ad-ro-

Reconstructed from place-names
Suffixed form adr-ia- in Hadria (Picenum)

aidh- 'to burn'

Reconstructed from Greek aitho* 'I burn', Old Irish aed 'fire', Latin aedes 'the hearth of the house, temple', Old Icelandic eldr (Common Germanic aidh-lo-) 'fire'
Suffixed form aidh-ola in Aefula (Latium)

*ak'- 'sharp'

Extension: ak't- 'promontory, hill'

Reconstructed from Greek akte* 'abrupt coast' Tocharian A aç- (ak't-)
Suffixed form ak't-eno- in Antinum (Samnium)
Suffixed form ak't-idio- in Attidium (Umbria)
Suffixed form ak't-io in Antium (Latium)

U-stem ak'u-

Reconstructed from Greek achuros* 'chaff', Latin acus 'needle', Low High German achel (from ak'u-la-) 'spike'
Suffixed form ak'u-ino- in Aquinum (Latium)

N-stem ak'en-

Reconstructed from Old Persian atanga* (ak-en-go) 'stone', Greek akaina* 'peak', Latin agna 'spike', Gothic ahana 'chaff'
Suffixed zero-grade form *ak'_en-ia in Anagnia (Latium)

Extension: ok'ri-

Reconstructed from Greek okris* 'mountain top', Old Latin ocris 'mount', Umbrian ocar 'mount', Middle Irish ochair 'edge'
O-grade ok'ri- in Interocrium (Samnium), Ocriculum (Umbria)

S-stem: ak'es-

Reconstructed from Greek achne (from ak's-na-) 'chaff', Latin acus, -eris*
Suffixed zero-grade form ak's-i-a in Axia (Etruria)

akwa- 'water, river'

Reconstructed from Latin aqua 'water', Gothic aha 'flow' (Germanic ahwo-), Old Icelandic aegir* 'sea god' (ekw-io-s)
Suffixed form akwo-lo- in Aquilo fl. (Apulia), Aquilonia (Samnium), Aquilonia (Hirpinia)
Compund second term -akwa in Tarracina (Latium), Isacia i. (Lucania)
Suffixed R-szem akwer- from whence Acerrae (Umbria), Acerrae (Campania)

al- 'to grow, nourish'

Reconstructed from Latin alo, -ere* 'to nourish', Old Irish alim 'I nourish', Gothic alan 'to grow up'
Suffixed form *al-ent- in Aletium (Apulia)

Parallel root al_e- 'to grind'

Reconstructed from Armenian alauri* (alatrio-) 'mill', Greek aleo* 'I grind'
Suffixed form *al_e-tr-io in Aletrium (Latium), Aletrium (Hirpinia)

Extension: alt-

Reconstructed from Greek alsos* (altios) 'holy bosk', Latin altus* 'high', Middle Irish alt 'high', Old High German alt 'old', Oscan altinum 'alimentorum'
Suffixed form *alti-no- in Altaenus fl. (Apulia)

Extension: alm-

Reconstructed from Greek alma* 'grove', Latin almus 'nutritive'
Full-grade form *alm-a in Alma fl. (Etruria)

albho- 'white'

Reconstructed from Latin albus* 'white', Umbrian alfu 'white', Welsh elfydd (albio-) 'earth', Old High German albiz* 'swan'
Suffixed form albho-la- in Albula fl. (Picenum), Albula fl. (Latium)
Suffixed form albh-ena (?) in Albinia fl. (Etruria)
Full-grade form albha in Alba Longa (Latium)
Suffixed form albho-na (?) in Albunea fl. (Latium)

algh- 'frost, cold'

Reconstructed from Latin algor* 'cold'
Full-grade form algh- in Algae (Etruria), Algidus m. (Latium)

ambhi- 'around, from both sides'

Reconstructed from Greek amphi 'around', Latin am(b)- 'around' in compounds, Umbrian am(b)- 'around' in compounds, Oscan ampt (amb(h)-ti-) 'around', Albanian mbi, mbë* 'on, next to', Sanskrit ambhi- (m_ebhi-) 'around' in compounds, Gaulish ambi-* (m_ebhi-) 'around' in compounds
Compound first term in Amiternum (Samnium)

ames- 'blackbird, merl'

Reconstructed from Old High German amusla 'blackbird', Latin merula 'merl', Welsh mwyalch 'blackbird'
Suffixed form ames-ia in Ameria (Umbria)

ank- 'to bend, bow'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit añcati 'he curves, bends', Greek ankon 'elbow', Latin ancrae 'valley', Old Irish ecath (ankato-) 'gaff', Old High German ango* 'gaff', Old Norse angr (Germanic angra-) 'bay', Lithuanian anka* 'loop', Tocharian A ancäl 'arc'
Suffixed form ank-sa- in Anxa (Samnium), Anxa from whence Anxanum (Samnium), Anxia (Lucania)
Suffixed variant form ango-lo- or ang-el-o- in Angulum (Samnium)

ant- 'forward, before'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit anta-h* 'end, border', Greek ant- 'forefront', Old Irish etan (antono-) 'forehead', Hittite hant-s* 'forefront' and as an adverb
Suffixed form anti-no- in Antinum (Samnium)

ap- 'water, river'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit ap- 'water', Old Prussian ape 'river'
Compound second term ap-ia in Salapia (Apulia), Metapontum (Lucania)

ar(e)g'- 'glittering, white'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit arjuna- 'clear, white', rajata- 'silver', Avestan _er_ezata- 'silver', Latin argentum 'silver', Oscan aragetu- 'silver', Old Irish arggat 'silver', Armenian arcat' 'silver', greek arguros 'silver', argos 'white', Tocharian arki 'white'
Suffixed form arg'-ent-io in Argetium (Apulia)

arkwu- 'something bent'

Reconstructed from Latin arcus* (arquos) 'arc', Gothic arhazna* 'dart'
Suffixed from arkwu-ino in Arpinum (Latium)

as- 'to burn

Reconstructed from Sanskrit asah 'ash', Latin aridus (as-) 'dry', Old High German essa* (asion) 'fireplace', Tocharian A asar* 'dry'
Suffixed as-isio- in Asisium (Umbria)
Compound first term as-dhu-ro in Astura fl. (Latium)

at(e)r- 'fire'

Reconstructed from Avestan atars* 'fire', Latin ater 'black, dark = burned', Umbrian atru, adro 'black, dark'
Suffixed form ater-no- Aternus fl. (Samnium)

au(e)- 'to flow'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit avata-h 'fountain'
Suffixed form au-ent- from whence Aventinus fl. (Samnium)
Suffixed form au-ent- in Avens fl. (Samnium)
Suffixed form aue-ia- in Aveia (Samnium)
Suffixed form ue-lo- in Velinus lac. (Samnium), Velia (Lucania)
Extendend form auel-idio- in Aveldius fl. (Apulia)

Extension: (a)uer- 'water, rain, flow'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit var* 'water', Avestan vari 'water', Tocharian A war 'water', Armenian gayr (uer-io-) 'swamp', Old Norse vari* 'water', Lithuanian virti 'to bubble', Old Church Slavonic vyreti 'to swell'
Suffixed zero-grade form u_er-i- in Varia (Latium)
Suffixed form uer_e-to- in Eretum (Samnium), Veretum (Apulia)
Suffixed form ur_e-to- in Uretum (Apulia)
Suffixed form uer_e-lo- in Verulae (Latium)
Compound second term met-aur- in Metaurus fl. (Umbria), Metaurus fl. (Bruttium)
Compound second term is-aur- in Isaurus fl. (Umbria)
Suffixed form auer-no- in Avernus lac. (Campania)
Suffixed zero-grade form ur-io in Hyrium (Apulia)

Extension: (a)ued- 'water'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit uda-* 'water(s)', Armenian get (from uedo-) 'water', Greek udor* 'water', Albanian uje 'water', Latin unda 'wave', Umbrian utur 'water', Gothic wato 'water', Old Irish uisce (from udeskio-), Old Church Slavonic voda* 'water', Hittite watar 'water'
Suffixed full-grade form ued-sa in Sinuessa (Campania)
Suffixed full-grade form (S-Stem) ueds-ski- in Vescia (Campania), Vescellium (Hirpinia)
Suffixed zero-grade form ud-sko-osio- in Uscosium (Samnium)
Suffixed zero-grade R-stem udr-_ent- in Hydruntum (Apulia)

au(e)g- 'to magnify, increase'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit ugra* 'mighty', Avestan ugra- 'strong', Latin augeo, -ere 'to increase', Gothic aukan 'to enhance', Lithuanian augti 'to increase', Greek auxo 'I increase', Old Norse vaxa 'to grow'
Suffixed S-stem or superlative form augs_emo- in Auximum (Picenum)

aues- 'to shine'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit usah 'dawn', Greek eos (ausos) 'dawn', Latin aurora* (ausosa) 'dawn', auster* (au-tero-) 'south wind', aurum* 'gold', Old Norse austr (Germanic austro-) 'east', Lithuanian ausra* 'dawn'
R-stem zero-grade form auser- in Auser fl. (Etruria)
Suffixed zero-grade form aus-ent-o- in Ausentus fl. (Samnium)
Suffixed full-grade U-stem uesu-io- in Vesuvius m. (Campania)

aus- 'to draw water'

Reconstructed from Greek exauo* 'I extract', Old Norse ausa 'to acquire', Latin haurio, -ire 'to drain'
Suffixed form aus-ti- in Austicula (Campania)
Suffixed form aus-tlo- in Asculum (Picenum), Ausculum (Apulia)

b(h)eu- 'to swell, puff'

Reconstructed from Greek bounos* 'hill', Middle Low German poll (from bul-no) 'head, point'
Suffixed zero-grade form b_eu-lo in Bauli (Campania)

Extension: beus- 'sac, bag'

Reconstructed from Middle Irish buas* (bous-to-) 'sac, bag, belly', Old Norse puss* 'bag, sac'
Suffixed A-grade form b_eus- in Pausulae (Picenum) Bausta (Apulia)

bhago- 'beech'

Reconstructed from Greek phegos 'oak', Latin fagus 'beech', Gallic bagos 'beech', Old High German buohha (bokon-) 'beech', Russian buz* (Common Slavic buza-) 'elder'
Suffixed form bhagi-dha- from whence Fagifulae (Samnium)

bheid- 'to prick, pierce'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit bhina-dmi* 'I prick', Latin findere 'to prick', Gothic beitan 'to bite'.
Suffixed zero-grade form bhid-sko- from whence Fiscellus m. (Samnium)
Suffixed full-grade form bheid-sko- from whence Fescennia (Etruria)
Suffixed zero-grade form bhid-ena in Fidenae (Latium)
Suffixed zero-grade form bhid-ster-na (?) in Fisternae (Samnium)
Suffixed zero-grade form bhid-(s)tel- (?) in Fistelia (Lucania)

bhel(e)- 'shining, white'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit bhalam 'glance', Armenian bal 'pallor', Greek phalos 'white', Celtic belo- 'lucent, white', Gothic bala 'pallor', Lithuanian balas 'white', Old Church Slavonic belu 'white'
Zero-grade S-stem bh_eles- in Falerii (Etruria), Falerio (Picenum)
O-grade form bhol-a in Bola (Latium)
Suffixed zero-grade form bh_el-ent-io in Balesium (Apulia)
Suffixed zero-grade bh_el_e-to in Baletum fl. (Bruttium)

Extension: bheleg- 'to shine'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit bhargas* 'shine', Latvian balgans 'whitish', Tocharian palk 'to shine', Greek phlego 'I enlight', Latin flagro, -are 'to blaze', fulgo 'to flash', Middle High German blecken 'to flash'
Suffixed zero-grade form bhl_eg-da in Blanda (Bruttium)

Extension: bhles- 'to shine'

Reconstructed from Middle High German blas 'torch'
Suffixed form bhles-ra- in Blera (Etruria)

bhelg'- 'plank, timber'

Reconstructed from Greek phalanx 'root, timber', Latin fulcio, -ire (from bh_elk'-) 'to truncate', Old Icelandic bialki* (belkan-) 'timber', Latvian balziens* 'support'
Suffixed zero-grade form bh_elg'-_eno- in Fulginiae (Umbria)

bher- 'to bear, carry'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit bharati '(he) bears', Armenian berem 'I bear', Greek phero 'I bear', Albanian bie (from bhero-) 'I carry', Latin fero, ferre* 'to bear', ferax 'fruitful', Eastern Italic fer- 'to bear', Old Irish biru 'I bear', Gothic bairan 'to bear', Old Church Slavonic bero 'I take', Tocharian A par- 'to bear'
Suffixed form bher-ent- in Ferentum (Etruria), Ferentinum (Latium) Forentum (Apulia)

bheredh- 'board'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit bardhaka-h 'carpenter', Umbrian forfo- 'lying on the board', Anglo-Saxon bred 'board'
Zero-grade N-stem bhr_edh- in Furfo (Samnium), Furfane (Apulia)
Zero-grade form bhr_edh-(u)-lo- in Barduli (Apulia)

bhereg'- 'to shine, white'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit bhrajate* '(he) shines', Latin farnus (far_ag-s-no-s) 'ash-tree', fraxinus* (bh_er_eg-s-eno-s), Old High german birihha* (from bher_eg'-i-a-) 'birch', Lithuanian berzas* 'birch'
Suffixed form bhereg'-ra- in Beregra (Picenum)

bher(e)g'h- 'high, mountain'

Reconstructed from Armenian berj 'high', Old Latin forctus (forg-tos) 'strong', Gaulish briga* 'hill', Old High German berg 'mountain', Old Church Slavic bregu 'shore, versant', Hittite parkus 'high'
Suffixed form bhereg'h-ra- in Beregra (Picenum)

bhes- 'to smear, spread'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit bhasma 'ash', Greek psolos 'soot', Latin sabulum (bhs_e-bhlo-) 'sand', Middle High German sant* 'sand'
Suffixed full-grade form bhes_e-dha from whence Besidiae (Bruttium)

bheug- 'to clear away'

Reconstructed from Avestan baog- 'to rescue', Gothic us-baug-jan 'to sweep'
Zero-grade form bhug- in Buca (Samnium)
Suffixed form bheug-no- in Fucinus lac. (Samnium)

bhreg'- 'to break'

Reconstructed from Latin frango, -ere* 'to break', fragilis (from bhr_eg-) 'fragile', Middle Irish braigid* 'to fart', Gothic brikan 'to break'
Suffixed form bhreg'-ena in Fregenae (Etruria)
Suffixed form bhreg'-el- in Fregellae (Latium)

bhren- 'horn' ('herdsman' ?)

Reconstructed from Messapian brendon* (bren-to-) 'deer', Albanian bri, brini* 'horn' (from bhr_eno-), Norwegian brund* 'reindeer', Latvian briedis 'red deer'
Suffixed zero-grade form bhr_en-t-isio in Brundisium (Apulia)

bhres- 'to break'

Reconstructed from Middle Irish brosc 'roar', Old High German brestan 'to crack'
Suffixed form bhres-lo- from whence Fresilia (Samnium)

bhudh- 'bottom'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit budhna 'base, bottom', Greek puth-men (phuth-men) 'bottom of a vessel', Latin fundo* 'id.', Middle Irish bond 'sole, bottom', Old High German bodam 'bottom'
Suffixed N-infixed form bhundh-el- in Bondelia (Etruria)
N-infixed form bhundh- in Fundi (Latium)

digh-

Reconstructed from Thracian diza* 'goat', Old High German ziga 'goat'
Suffixed zero-grade form digh-ent- in Digentia (Latium)

del- 'to split, divide'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit dalayati 'he divides', Armenian tal 'mark', Latin dolo, -ere 'to work', Old Irish delb 'shape', Lithuanian dalis 'portion', Middle Low German tol 'sector'
Suffixed O-grade form dol-ent- from which Tolentinum (Picenum)

der- 'to run'

Reconstructed from
Suffixed zero-grade S-stem dres-te- in Treste fl. (Samnium)
Suffixed zero-grade form dri-no- in Trinius fl. (Samnium), Tirinus fl. (Samnium), Diria (Apulia)

Extension d(e)reu- 'to run'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit dravati* '(he) runs', Avestan dravaya- 'to run'
Suffixed form dereu-ent-o- Terventum (Samnium)
Suffixed zero-grade form dru-ent-o- in Truentus fl. (Picenum)
Suffixed zero-grade form dreu-ent- in Traeis fl. (Bruttium)

deru- 'tree'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit daru 'wood', Greek doru 'trunk, wood', drus 'oak, tree', Albanian dru (dru-ua) 'tree, wood', Welsh derw* 'oak', Gothic triu (dreu-) 'wood, tree', Old Church Slavonic drevo* (Common Balto-Slavic derua-) 'tree', Lithuanian dreve* (Common Baltic dreuia-) 'cavity in a tree', Hittite taru* 'wood, tree'
Suffixed form deru-uent-o- in Terventum (Samnium)

dhabh- 'proper'

Reconstructed from Latin faber 'craftsman, artist, smith', Gothic gadof 'decent', Old Church Slavonic dobru 'that fits'
Suffixed form dhab-ro in Fabrateria (Latium)

dheig'h- 'to knead clay, to build'

dhel- 'curve, hollow'

Reconstructed from Greek tholos* 'cupola', Welsh dol 'valley', Gothic dal 'valley', Old Church Slavonic dolu 'pit'
O-grade form dol- in Dola (Umbria)

dheu- 'to run'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit dhavate 'he runs', dhautih 'spring, stream', Greek theo 'I run'
Suffixed zero-grade form as-dhu-ro in Astura fl. (Latium)
Suffixed zero-grade form dhur-io-sto in Turiostum (Lucania)
Zero-grade form dhu-ra from whence Thurii (Bruttium)

dhuer- 'door'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit dva-rah 'doors', Armenian dur-k 'doors', Greek thura 'door', Albanian derë 'door', Latin fores (dhuor-), foras* 'out', Umbrian furu 'forum', Welsh dor (dhura) 'door', Gaulish duron* 'fortress ?', Old High german turi 'door', Lithuanian dures 'doors', Old Church Slavonic dvuri 'door', Tocharian A twere 'doors'
Suffixed zero-grade N-stem dhuron-ia in Duronia (Samnium)

eg'hi- 'hedgehog'

Reconstructed from Armenian ozni 'hedgehog', Phrygian ezis 'hedgehog', Greek echinos 'hedgehog', Old Hogh German igil 'hedgehog', Old Norse igull 'sea urchin', Latvian ezis 'hedgehog', Church Slavonic jezu (from eg'hios) 'hedgehog', Russian ozina* 'blackberry'
Suffixed (zero-grade ?) form eg'hi-lo- from whence Igilium i. (Etruria)

eis- 'to move rapidly'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit isnati '(he) actuates, put in motion', Greek iaros (isros) 'vigorous', oima* 'attack', Latin ira (eisa) 'anger', Gothic eisarn* (Germanic isarnan) 'iron' (?),
R-stem aiser- from whence Aesernia (Samnium), Aesarus fl. (Bruttium)
S-stem (?) aises in Aesis (Umbria)
Zero-grade compound first term is- in Isaurus fl. (Umbria), Isacia i. (Lucania)
Suffixed Zero-grade (or A-grade) ais-ent-io in Aezetium (Apulia)
Suffixed zero-grade form is-ro- in Numistro (Lucania)

el- 'red, brown'
Extension: al-eno-, al-is- 'alder'

Reconstructed from Latin alnus* 'alder', Macedonian aliza, white poplar', Old High German elira (alisa) 'adler', Lithuanian alksnis* 'adler', Old Bulgarian jelucha 'adler'

Suffixed zero-grade form _el-n_e-dha (or -bha) in Allifae (Campania)

er- 'to move'

Reconstructed from Avestan ar- 'to put (himself) in motion', Sanskrit arna- 'flowing', Greek ornumi 'I move', Latin orior, -iri 'to rise', Umbrian ortom 'risen', Old Icelandic ern (arnia-) 'vigorous', Gothic rinnan* 'to run'
Suffixed zero-grade form _er-na- in Arna (Umbria), Arnus fl. (Etruria)
Extension: ereu- 'swift, speedy'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit arvan- 'hasting', Avestan aurvant- 'fast', Latin ruo, -ere 'to run, haste', Middle Irish ruathar (from reu-tro) 'rush', Old Icelandic orr* 'rash, swift'
Suffixed O-grade orve-no in Orvinium (Samnium)

ereb(h)- 'a kind of dark colour'

Reconstructed from Greek orphnos 'dark', Gaulish eburos 'yew tree', Albanian ber-sh-e 'yew tree', Old Icelandic iarpr 'brown', Czech jerab 'rowan berry'
Dissimilated form eburo- in Eburum (Lucania)

er(e)dh- 'high, to grow'

Reconstructed from Latin arduus 'high, steep', Old Irish ard 'high, large', Albanian rit 'I grow', Tocharian A orto 'aloft', Old Bulgarian rasto (orsto) 'I grow'
Suffixed zero-grade form _er_edh-ena in Artena (Latium)

ered- 'to flow, dampness'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit ardati* 'he flows', Greek arda 'mud'
Suffixed zero-grade form _er_ed-ea in Ardea (Latium)

eres- 'to flow'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit rasah 'juice', arsati '(he) flows', Greek ap-erao (from er_eso-) '(I) vomit, pour liquid', Hittite arszi* '(he) flows'
Suffixed zero-grade form _er_es-eto- in Arretium (Etruria)

eudh- 'udder, fecund'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit udhar 'udder', Greek outhar 'udder', Latin uber 'udder, tit', uber 'opulent, fecund', Old High German utrin 'to the udder', Lithuanian udruo 'to be pregnant'
Suffixed O-grade form oudh-ena in Aufidena (Samnium)
Suffixed O-grade form oudh-_eno- in Aufinum (Samnium)
Suffixed O-grade or zero-grade form (o)udh-ent- in Aufentus fl. (Latium)
Suffixed O-grade form oudh-ido (?) in Aufidus fl. (Apulia)
Suffixed O-grade form oudh-ugo (?) in Aufugum (Bruttium)

gei- 'to turn, bend'
Extension: geis-

Reconstructed from Old Icelandic keisa* 'to bend', Swiss German chiren 'to lean on one side'
Suffixed full-grade form geis-ra in Caere (Etruria)
Suffixed zero-grade form gis-ma ifrom whence Ciminus lac. (Etruria)

g'enu- 'knee, joint'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit janu* 'knee', New Persian zanu 'knee', Armenian cun-r (from g'onu-) 'knee', Greek gonu* 'id.', Latin genu, -us 'id.', Gothic kniu 'id.', Hittite genu 'id.'
Suffixed U-stem g'enu(s)-ia in Genusia (Apulia)

ger- 'to gather, put together'
Reduplication extension: greg-

Reconstructed from Latin grex, gregis* 'flock', Middle Irish graig 'horse flock', Lithuanian gurguole 'mass' (Baltoslavic gur- from IE g_or-), Old Church Slavonic grusty 'fist' (gursty)
Reduplicated zero grade form grg-r- in Gurgures m. (Samnium)
Suffixed full-grade form ger-io- in Geronium (Apulia)

g'hel- 'to shine, green, gold, blue'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit hari 'blond, yellow', Avestan zari 'yellow', Greek cholos 'bile', Latin fel, fellis (fel-ni-s) 'bile' and helvus* (g'heluos) 'yellowish', Welsh gell* (gel-no-s) 'yellow'
Suffixed form g'helu-_eno- in Helvinus fl. (Picenum)

Form g'hl_e-

Reconstructed from Irish glan* 'clean', Icelandic glan 'shine'
Suffixed form gh'l-no- in Clanis fl. (Latium)

g'her- 'to gripe, grab, enclose'

Reconstructed from Greek chortos 'court, pasture ground', Latin hortus 'garden, enclosed place', Oscan hurz 'id.', Gaulish gorto- 'hedge', Gothic garda 'hurdle'
Suffixed O-grade form g'hor-to- in Horta (Etruria)
Suffixed zero-grade form g'hr_e-ti in Crathis fl. (Bruttium)

Extension: gherdh- 'to encircle, enclose'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit gr_eha* (gr_edha-) 'house', Albanian garth* (from ghordhos) 'hedge', Gothic gards* 'house', Lithuanian gardas 'hurdling', Old Church Slavonic gradu 'city, garden'
Suffixed full-grade N-stem gherdh-on in Herdonia (Hirpinia)

g'hers- 'rigid'

Reconstructed from Greek chersos 'land', Sanskrit harsate 'he becomes rigid', Latin horreo, -ere 'to gaze', hircus (from gher-kwo-) 'he-goat', Oscan hirpus* 'wolf', Latin hispidus (loanword from Osco-Umbrian) 'rough', Sabine herna (from g'hers-no-) 'stones', Old Irish garb* (from ghr_e-uo-) 'rough'
Suffixed form g'hers-kw- from whence Hispellum (Umbria)

ghreu-

Reconstructed from Greek chrauo* 'I scribe, bruise', Gaulish grava 'gravel', Welsh gro* 'sand', Middle High German grien 'gravel sand'
Suffixed zero-grade form ghr_eu-isk- in Graviscae (Etruria).

grem- 'damp, to sink'

Reconstructed from Latin gramiae 'pink eye', Old Icelandic kramr 'damp', Old Church Slavonic grumezdu 'pink eye', Lithuanian grimstu 'to sink'
Suffixed S-stem form gremes-ra (?) in Cremera fl. (Etruria)

greu- 'to scrape together'

Reconstructed from Greek gru 'the dirt under the nails', Norwegian kryl 'hump'

Extension: greu-mo-

Reconstructed from Latin grumus* 'bunch of earth', Middle High German Krume 'breadcrume', Greek grumea 'junk'
Zero-grade form gru-mo- in Grumum (Apulia)

gwabh- 'to sink, submerge, plunge'

Reconstructed from Greek bapto 'I submerge, plunge', Old Norse kafa 'to submerge', Sanskrit gabhira- 'deep'
A-grade gab- in Gabii (Latium)

gwhei- 'bright, shining'

Reconstructed from Greek phaidros 'bright', phaios 'crepuscular, gray', Lithuanian gaidrus 'bright', gaisas (gwh_eid-so-s) 'flare in the sky'
Suffixed zero-grade form gwh_eid-so- from whence Faesulae (Etruria)

g'hei- 'winter, snow'
Extension: g'hei-m(n)- 'cold, snow'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit himah 'cold, frost, snow', hima 'winter', Greek cheima 'winter, cold', Albanian dimere (from g'hei-m_en-om) 'winter', Lithuanian ziema* 'winter', Old Church Slavonic zima 'winter'
Suffixed zero-grade form g'heim-ro-la in Himella (Samnium)
Suffixed zero-grade g'heime-io- in Imeus m. (Samnium)

gwher- 'hot, warm'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit haras-* 'fervor', Armenian jer 'heat', Greek theros 'summer heat, harvest', Latin formus 'warm', Middle Irish grith (gwhr_etu-) 'heat', Lithuanian garas* 'vapor', Old Church Slavonic goreti 'to burn'
Suffixed O-grade form gwhor-mo- in Formiae (Latium)
Suffixed full-grade gwher-no- in Privernum (Latium), Prifernum (Samnium)

gwer- 'mountain'

Reconstructed from Samskrit girih* 'mountain', Avestan gairi- 'id.', Albanian gur (from gw_eri-) 'stone', Lithuanian girie* 'wood', Old Church Slavonic gora 'mountain', Macedonian bora 'mountain', Greek deiros* (gwer-i-o-) 'hill' (?), Thracian kiris 'mountain' (Duridanov)
Suffixed O-grade gweri-nto- in Corythus (Etruria)

gwou- 'cattle'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit gauh 'beef', Armenian kov 'cow', Greek bous 'cow', Latin bos 'beef' (an Osco-Umbrian loanword), Umbrian bu-, Old Irish bo (bau) 'cow', Old High german chuo* 'cow', Tocharian A ko 'cow'
Suffixed gwou-ia-no- in Bovianum (Samnium)
Suffixed gwou-el- in Bovillae (Latium)
Suffixed reduplication form gwou-gw-ent- in Bubentum (Latium)

ieu- 'young'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit yuvan- 'young', Latin juvenis 'young', Umbrian iouie- 'young', Old Irish oa 'younger', Lithuanian jaunas 'young'
Suffixed zero-grade N-stem iuuen- in Iuvanum (Samnium)

k'ad- 'to shine, flaunt, excel'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit sasad- 'to flaunt', Greek kekadmenos 'flaunting', Gaulish caddos 'saint'
Suffixed full-grade form kad-na- in Cannae (Apulia)

kam-er-

Reconstructed from Sanskrit kmarati '(he) is crooked', Greek kamara 'arch, vault', Latin camerus, camurus 'bent, crooked'
Suffixed form kamer-_eno in Camerinum (Umbria)
Suffixed form kamer-io in Camerium (Latium)

kap- 'a piece of land'

Reconstructed from Greek kepos, kapos* 'garden', Old High German huoba 'a piece of land', Albanian kopshte 'garden' (maybe also Latvian kapa 'dune, hillock ?)
Suffixed form kap-ena- in Capena (Etruria)

kaput 'head'

Reconstructed from Latin caput, -itis 'head, top', Sanskrit kapucchala 'hair on the back of the head', Gothic haubidh 'head'
Suffixed form kaput-elo- in Capitulum Hernicum (Latium)

kar- 'hard'

Reconstructed from Greek karuon 'nut', Latin carina 'nutshell', Welsh ceri (kariso-) 'stone', Gothic hardus* 'hard, strong', Old irish carrac 'rock, cliff'

kars- 'to scratch, rub'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit kasati* (kr_esati) '(he) rubs', Latin carro* 'to scratch', Lithuanian karsiu 'to rub', Old Bulgarian krasta (kor-sta) 'scab', Middle Low German harst* 'rake'
Suffixed form kars-io- from whence Carseoli (Samnium)
Suffixed form kars-lo- in Carsulae (Umbria)

k'as- 'gray'

Reconstructed from Latin canus* (kas-no-) 'gray', Paelignan casnar* 'senex', Old High German hasan 'shining, polished', Old Norse hoss 'gray-brown', Sanskrit sasa- 'hare', Welsh ceinach 'hare', Old Prussian sasins 'hare'
Suffixed form k'as-uent-o- in Casuentum (Umbria), Casuentus fl. (Lucania)
Suffixed form k'as-_eno- in Casinum (Latium)
Suffixed form k'as-_el-_eno- in Casilinum (Campania)

kau- 'to hit, cut'

Reconstructed from Latin cudo, -ere (caudo-) 'to cut', Old High German houwan* 'to hew', Lithuanian kauju (from kauio-) 'to cut', Old Bulgarian kovati* 'to forge'
Suffixed extended form kaud-io in Caudium (Hirpinia)

kel- 'spotted'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit kalanka 'spot', kalka 'mud, smut', Greek kelainos 'black', Middle High german hilwe 'fine fog'

Variant: kal- (or kwal- ?)
Reconstructed from Greek kelis, -idos 'spot', Latin caligo 'fog', Old Irish caile 'spot', Old Church Slavonic kaly 'dirt'
Suffixed form kal-etra- (?) in Caletra (Etruria)
Suffixed form kal-eno- in Calenum (Campania)
Suffixed form kalor in Calor fl. (Hirpinia)
First compound term in Calasarna (Lucania)

kel- 'to tower, be high, hill'

Reconstructed from Greek kolonos 'hill', Latin collis (kol-ni-) 'hill', Middle Irish coll* (kol-no-) 'chief', English hill* (hulni-), Lithuanian keliu* 'to lift'
Suffixed O-grade form kol-ni- from whence Collatia (Latium)

kenk- 'to bind, girdle'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit kancate '(he) binds', Greek kinklis 'grid', Latin cingo 'to gird', Umbrian çinçersa (kinkeda-) 'gates'
Suffixed kenk-el- from whence Cingilia (Samnium)
Suffixed form kenk-lo in Cingulum (Picenum)
Suffixed form kenk-lo in Cingulum (Latium)

k'er- 'head, horn'
Extension: k(e)r(e)u- 'horned'

Reconstructed from Greek keraos 'horned', Latin cervus 'deer', Welsh carw (kr_euos) 'deer', Old Prussian sirwis* 'roe', Albanian ka (kr_eu-) 'ox', Russian krava* (from k'or_eua-) 'cow'
Suffixed zero-grade form k'r_eu-(u)ent- in Carventum (Latium)

k'ers- 'to run'

Reconstructed from Latin curro, -ere* (from k'r_eso-), Gaulish carros* (from k'r_eso-) 'cart', Middle Hign German hurren* 'to move rapidly'
Suffixed zero-grade form k'rs-ul- in Cursula (Umbria)

kert- 'to turn, roll, wind'

Reconstructed from Latin cratis 'basketry of branches', Gothic haurds (from kr_etis), Old Saxon harst* 'grate', Old Prussian corto 'fence', Lithuanian krantas 'steep bank'
Suffixed O-grade cort-ona in Cortona (Etruria)
Zero-grade form kr_et-i in Crathis fl. (Bruttium)

kes- 'to scratch, itch'

Reconstructed from Greek keskeon (kes-kes-) 'oakum', Middle Irish cir* 'crest', Old Norse haddr 'hair', Lithuanian kasa 'tress', Old Church Slavonic cesati 'to comb'
Suffixed O-grade form kos-men-io in Cominium (Latium)
keu- 'to bend'
Extension: keub-

Reconstructed from Greek kubos, Latin cubitus* 'elbow', Welsh gogof 'cavity', Gothic hups 'hip', Sanskrit kubra 'cavity'
Suffixed zero-grade form kub-ra- in Cupra, Cupra Montana (Picenum)
Compound first part keub- in Cubulteria (Campania)

k'lei- 'to tip, incline, lean'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit srayati* '(he) leans', Armenian learn 'mountain', Greek kli-no 'to incline', Latin clino 'to curve', clivus 'hill', Umbrian kletram, Welsh clwyd 'barrier', Old High German hlinen 'to lean', Lithuanian slieju 'to lean', Russian sloj (Common Slavic sloju) 'deposit'
Suffixed zero-grade form k'li-to- from whence Cliternum (Samnium), Clitumnus fl. (Umbria)
Suffixed zero-grade k'lei-bha-no in Clibanus m. (Bruttium)

k'leu- 'to hear'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit sru-ta 'heard', Armenian lu 'rumour', Greek klutos 'famous', kleWos 'fame', Latin clueo 'to be called', Old Irish cloth 'fame', Old Icelandic hljodh 'to listen', Old Bulgarian slava 'fame'
Suffixed zero-grade form k'lu-ia- in Cluviae (Samnium)
Suffixed zero-grade form in Cluana (Picenum)
Fuell-grade S-stem k'leu(e)s- in Clusium (Etruria)

k'leu- 'to rinse, clean'

Reconstructed from Greek kluzo* (kludio)'to flush', Old Latin cluo, cloaca* (cluaca) 'drain channel', Welsh clir* (from k'lu-ro-s) 'clean', Gothic hlutrs* 'clean', Lithuanian sluoju 'to mop'
Suffixed zero-grade form in Cluana (Picenum)

kreu- 'blood, raw flesh, ice, crust'

Reconstructed from Greek kreas* (from kreu-_es) 'flesh', Sanskrit kravis* 'raw flesh', Latin cruentus 'bloody', crusta 'crust, cortex', Oscan krusta- 'crust, cortex', Middle irish cru* (from krus) 'blood', Lithuanian kraujas* 'blood', Slavic kry 'blood', Old High German hro* 'raw'
Suffixed zero-grade S-stem crus-tu-mo in Crustumerium (Latium)

(k)seud- 'to grind in little pieces'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit ksoda- 'powder', Old Bulgarian chudu 'small, bad, meager'
Suffixed zero-grade form sud-ro- in Sutrium (Etruria)

k'u- 'sharp, pike'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit sula 'pole', Latin cuneus (from k'u-no-) 'wedge'
Suffixed form k'u-no- from which Cunerus m. (Picenum)

k'uei- 'shining, white'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit svindate* (from k'uei-d-) '(he) shines', sveta* (from k'uei-t-) 'white', Gothic hveits* (from k'uei-d-) 'white', Lithuanian sviesa* (from k'uei-s-) 'light',
Suffixed A-grade kwais- from whence Paesinum (Umbria)
Suffixed A-grade kwai-no- in Caenina (Latium)

lama- 'swamp, puddle'

Reconstructed from Latin lama 'swamp, puddle', Latvian lama 'swamp', Bulgarian lam 'pit'
Suffixed form lam_eto- in Lametus fl. (Bruttium)

legh- 'to put down, to lie down'

Reconstructed from Greek lexomai 'to lie down', Albanian lagje 'cohort', Latin lectus (from legh-to-) 'bed', Old Irish lige* 'bed, grave', Welsh lle (from legho-) 'place', Gothic ligan* 'to lie', Bulgarian lezati 'to lie', Tocharian lake 'bed, camp', Hittite lagari 'he lies'
Suffixed zero-grade form l_egh_e-ro from whence Lagaria (Bruttium)

lek- 'to tear'

Reconstructed from Greek lakis 'frazzles', Albanian lakur 'fur, leather', Latin lacer 'disrupted', lacinia 'lappet', Polish lach 'frazzles'
Suffixed zero-grade form l_aki-no- in Lacinium pr. (Bruttium)

leu- 'dirt'

Reconstructed from Greek luma 'dirt', Albanian lum 'mud', Latin polluo 'I stain', Old Irish loth 'dirt', Lithuanian lutynas 'puddle'
Suffixed zero-grade form l_eu-t_e-lo- in Lautulae (Latium)

leuk- 'bright, to shine, to see'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit rocate 'he shines', Armenian lois 'light', Greek leukos 'light, white', Latin lux, lucis 'light', Welsh llug 'glimmer', Gaulish leuka 'the white', Gothic liuhath* 'light', Lithuanian laukas 'field (clearance)', Old Bulgarian luca* 'ray'
Zero-grade form luk-a in Luca (Etruria)
Suffixed zero-grade form luk-r-_eno- in Lucrinus lac. (Campania)
Suffixed zero-grade form luk-er in Luceria (Apulia)

lou(e)- 'to wash'

Reconstructed from Armenian loganam (from lou-_ena-) 'I wash myself', Greek loo* 'I wash', Latin lavo, -ere 'to wash', Gaulish lautro (from lou_e-tro-) 'I bathe', Breton laouer* 'hod, feeder', Old Icelandic laudhr 'foam'
Suffixed A-grade lou_e-no- in Lavinium (Latium), Lavinium (Bruttium)
O-grade form lou-o in Laus fl. (Bruttium)

mad- 'wet'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit madati* 'to flow', Greek madao 'I melt', Albanian mazë 'cream', Latin madeo, -ere 'to be wet', Old High German mast (mad-so-) 'food, pasture'
Suffixed R-stem mad-r-_eno- in Matrinus fl. (Picenum)

mand- 'hurdle, plaited twigs'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit mandura* 'horse's stable', Greek mandra 'stable, hurdle'
Suffixed form mand-_elo- in Mandela (Latium)

mat- 'hack, flapper'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit matya 'harrow', Latin mateola 'tool to stave in the earth', Old High German medela 'plough'
Suffixed form mate-lo in Matilica (Umbria)
Suffixed form mate-ia from which Mateola (Apulia)

me- 'in the middle of, by, around, with'
Extension: met(a)-

Reconstructed from Greek meta, Albanian mjet 'middle', Old Icelandic medhr 'with, in the middle of'
Compound first term met- in Metaurus fl. (Umbria), Metapontum (Lucania), Metaurus fl. (Bruttium)
Suffixed full-grade form met-_ena in Metina (Apulia)

medh- 'middle'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit madhya-* 'middle', Armenian mej 'center', Greek messos 'middle', Latin medius 'middle', Oscan mefiai 'in the middle', Gaulish medio- 'middle', Gothic midjis 'middle', Old Bulgarian mezda 'street'
Suffixed form medhu-la in Mefula (Samnium)

mei- 'to wander, go'

Reconstructed from Latin meo, -are 'to go, wander', Polish mijam 'to go, flee'
Extension: mein- (?, or independent root ?)

Suffixed zero-grade form min- in Minio fl. (Etruria)

mend- 'to suck, breast'

Reconstructed from Albanian ment* 'I suck', Illyrian mandos 'young horse', Middle Irish menn (mendo-) 'young animal', (under Pokorny's mand- 'hurdle') Sanskrit mandura 'stable for horses', Greek mandra 'stable'
Suffixed A-grade mand-_era in Manduria (Apulia)

mergw- 'to shimmer, shine'
mereg'- 'edge, border'

Reconstructed from Persian marz* 'district', Latin margo, -inis (from m_erg'-on), Old Irish mruig* (mrogi-) 'district', Gothic marka* 'border'
Suffixed zero-grade form mr_eg'-n_et-ia in Murgantia (Hirpinia)

meregh- 'to soak, drizzle'
meu- 'wet, dirt, to wash'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit mutra* 'urine', Greek (Hes.) mulasaothai (mu-dlo-) 'to wash', Middle Irish mud* 'urine', Latvian maut 'to immerse, swim', Old Bulgarian myjo 'to wash'
Suffixed form meu-_en-ia (?) in Mevania, Mevaniola (Umbria)

Extension: meud- 'frisky'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit mudira 'frog', Greek mudos 'wetness', Middle Irish muad 'pure', Old High German muzzan 'to clean', Lithuanian mudrus 'frisky', Latin mustus (muds-to-s) 'young, fresh'
Suffixed zero-grade S-stem muds-t-ia in Mustiae (Bruttium)

Extension: meus- 'moss, mould'

Reconstructed from Old High German mos* 'moss, swamp', Lithuanian musai 'mould from acid milk', Old Bulgarian muchu (from musos) 'moss'
Suffixed zero-grade form mus-r-_ena (?) in Musarna (Etruria)

mori- 'sea'

Reconstructed from Latin mare 'sea', Old Irish muir 'sea', Gothic marei 'sea', Lithuanian mare 'sea', Old Church Slavonic morje 'sea'
Suffixed A-form mar-uca- (?) in Marruca (Samnium)
Suffixed A-form mar-ouio- (?) in Marruvium (Samnium)

(e)nebh- 'wet, damp, water, clouds'
Extension mebh-ro-

Reconstructed from Sanskrit abhra (from m_ebrho-s) 'foul water', Avestan awra* 'cloud', Latin imber, imbris 'deluge',
N-stem m_ebhron in Umbro fl. (Etruria)

ner- 'vital energy, man'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit nar 'man', Armenian air 'man', Albanian njer 'man', Latin neriosus 'strong', Oscan nerum 'of the men', Welsh ner 'hero', Lithuanian noreti 'to want'
Suffixed O-grade nor-bha in Norba (Latium), Norba (Apulia)
Suffixed full-grade form ner-sa in Nersae (Samnium)

ner- 'to conceal, cover, hiding place, hollow'

Reconstructed from Lithuanian nerti* 'to cover', neris 'beaver' Old Church Slavonic nreti 'to conceal'
A-form nar- in Nar fl. (Umbria)
Suffixed full-grade form nere-to- in Neretum (Apulia)
Suffixed full-grade nero-lo in Nerulum (Lucania)

neuk- 'dark, indistinct'

Reconstructed from Latin nuscitiosus 'hemeralopic', Lithuanian apsi-niaukti 'to cloud'
R-stem zero-grade (or O-grade) form n(o)uk-r-ia (?) in Nuceria Camellaria (Umbria)

neuos 'new'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit nava- 'new', Greek ne(w)os 'new', Latin novus 'new', Lithuanian navas 'new', Old Bulgarian novu 'new'
Suffixed zero-grade form noue-lo- in Nola (Campania)

ous- 'mouth'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit ah 'mouth', Latin os, oris 'mouth', ora 'border', Middle Irish a (from osos) 'mouth', Old Irish oss* 'estuary', Albanian ane (ausna) 'edge'
O-grade form osa in Osa (Etruria)

Extension: oust-

Reconstructed from Sanskrit ostha* 'lip', Latin ostium 'mouth of a river', Old Church Slavonic usta 'mouth', Lithuanian uosta 'mouth of a river'
O-grade form ost- from whence Ostia (Latium)

pei- 'fat, milk'

pand- 'crooked'

Reconstructed from Latin pandus* 'crooked', Old Icelandic fattr 'turned back'
Full-grade form pand- in Pandateria i. (Latium)
Suffixed form pand-ont-ia in Pandosia (Lucania)

pent- 'to go, walk, way'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit panthah* 'place', Armenian hun (from pont-) 'way', Greek pontos* 'sea', Latin pons, -tis 'way through a swamp, bridge', Anglo-Saxon paeth 'way', Old Church Slavonic potu 'way'
Suffixed zero-grade form pn_et-ano- in Pantanus lac. (Apulia)

ped- 'foot'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit pad- 'foot', Avestan pad- 'foot', Greek pos 'foot', Latin pes, pedis 'foot', Umbrian pers- 'foot', Gothic fotus 'foot'

Form pedo-m 'trace, track, soil'

Reconstructed from Armenian het* 'footmark', Old Icelandic fet 'step', Greek pedon 'ground, soil', Umbrian persom 'soil', Hittite pedan 'place'
Full-grade form pedo-m in Pedum (Latium), Septempeda (Picenum)
Extension: peit-

Reconstructed from Sanskrit pitu- 'juice, drink', Old Irish ith '(food), corn', Latin pituita* 'rich wetness', Middle Irish iath (pei-tu-) '(fat) grass, land'
Zero-grade form pit- from whence Pitinum Pisaurense, Pitinum Mergens (Umbria), Pitinum (Samnium)

Extension: peid-

Reconstructed from Greek pidax* 'spring', pisea (pl., pid-s-es) 'swampy place, grass', Old Icelandic fita* 'fat' (Germ. faitian 'to fatten'), Latvian pisa* 'swamp'.
Suffixed zero-grade form pid-sa in Pisae (Etruria).

pel- 'wide and flat'

Reconstructed from Latin palam (p_ela-) 'plain', planus* (ple-no-) 'flat', Latvian plans* 'flat, plain', Old Irish lathar (pla-tro-), Old Church Slavonic polje* 'field', Hittite palhi- 'wide', Ols Swedish fala 'plain'
Suffixed zero-grade form pl_e-no- in Planina (Picenum)
Suffixed O-grade U-stem polu-ska in Polusca (Latium)

Extension pelt- 'plain'

Reconstructed from Old High German feld* 'field', Old Icelandic fold 'earth, land'
Suffixed U-stem peltu- from whence Peltuinum (Samnium)

pele- 'swamp'

Reconstructed from Latin palus, paludis (p_elou-d) 'swamp', Sanskrit palvala* 'pool', Latvian palus 'swamp'
Suffixed zero-grade p_el-ma- in Palma (Picenum)
O-grade form pol_e- in Politorium (Latium)

pel(i)-s- 'rocky'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit pasana-* (pars-) 'stone', Greek pella* (pelsa) 'stone', Middle Irish all* (from p_elso-) 'cliff', Old High German felis* 'rock'
Suffixed zero-grade form p_elsa-no- in Pallanum (Samnium)
Suffixed zero-grade N-stem p_eli-on in Palio (Apulia)

per- 'to go over'
Flexional form: pr-ai (prei, pri)

Reconstructed from Greek parai 'before', Albanian pa 'before', Latin prae 'before, on', Oscan prai 'id.', Gaulish are- (from p_eri-) 'at', Old High german furi* (from p_eri-) 'before', Lithuanian prie* (from prei-) 'at'
Compound first term pr_ei- in Privernum (Latium), Prifernum (Samnium)

perk'- 'to tear out, dig out, furrow'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit parsana* 'gap', Latin porca 'furrow in the field', Gaulish rica 'furrow', Old Icelandic for (<pr_ek'-)
Suffixed zero-grade form p_erk'-_ena- in Ricina (Picenum)

per(u)- ‘rock (?)’

Reconstructed from Hittite peruna-* ‘rock’, Sanskrit parvata- ‘mountain’.
Suffixed S-stem perus-ia in Perusia (Umbria).

pet- 'to open wide'

Reconstructed from Avestan patana 'wide, broad', Greek petalon 'leaf', Latin pateo, -ere 'to extend', Oscan patit (?) 'it extends', Welsh etem (petima) 'fathom', English fathom, Lithuanian petys* 'shoulder', Hittite pattar 'tablet'
Suffixed extended form pete-lo- from whence Petelia (Bruttium)

reg'- 'damp, rain'

Reconstructed from Latin rigare (reg-) 'to irrigate', Albanian rrieth* 'I flow', Norwegian rake 'wetness', Gothic rign 'rain'
Full-grade form reg'-a in Regae (Etruria)
Suffixed full-grade form reg'-en-lo- in Regillus lac. (Latium)
Full-grade form reg'-io in Rhegium (Bruttium)

rei- 'to flow'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit rinati '(he) lets flow', Greek ori-no 'to move', Albanian ritë (rinëtë) 'wet, damp', Latin rivus* (rei-uo-s) 'stream', Irish rian* 'sea', Gaulish Renos (rei-no-s) 'the Rhine', Middle Low German ride* 'stream'
Suffixed form reia-te- in Reate (Samnium)

reu- 'to tear out, dig out, open, acquire'

r_ek'sos 'bear'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit r_eksa-* 'bear', Armenian arj 'id.', Albanian ari 'id.', Greek arktos 'id.', Middle Irish art 'id.', Latin ursus 'id.'
Suffixed zero-grade form r_eks-ent- in Ursentum (Lucania)

rem- 'to rest, to support'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit ramate '(he) stays still', Greek erema 'quiet', Old irish fo-rim 'to stay', Old High German rama 'support', Gothic rimis 'calm', Lithuanian ramus 'quiet'
Suffixed O-grade form rom-_ela from whence Romulea (Hirpinia)

reudh- 'red'

reconstructed from Sanskrit rohita- 'red', Avestan raodita- 'red', Greek erythros 'red', Latin ruber 'red', Umbrian rufru 'red(s)', Old Irish ruad 'red', Old icelandic rjodhr 'red', Lithuanian raudas 'red', Old Church Slavonic rudu 'red'
Suffixed zero grade form rudh-ra- in Rufrae (Campania)
Suffixed zero-grade form rudh-ia in Rudiae (Apulia), Rudiae (Apulia)

reu- 'to tear out, dig out, open, acquire'
Extension: reus-

Reconstructed from Old Icelandic rust 'ruinous wall', Lithuanian rusys 'pit for potatoes', Latvian rusa 'piled debris'.

Extension: reub- 'to break'

Reconstructed from Latin rubus* 'blackberry (the bush where one snaps)', rubidus 'raw', Gothic raupjan 'to pluck'
Zero-grade form rub-i in Rubi (Apulia)

sab- 'to taste, perceive'

Reconstructed from Illyrian sabaium 'beer', Anglo-Saxon saep 'juice'
Suffixed form sab_e-to- in Sabatus fl. (Bruttium)

saip- 'stall, fence'

Reconstructed from Latin saepes 'fence', Greek aimasia (saip-mn_etia- ?) 'fence, wall'
Suffixed form saip-no- in Saepinum (Samnium)

sal- 'salt, salty water'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit sal-ila* 'sea', Armenian al 'salt', Greek hals 'salt, sea', Latin sal 'salt', Umbrian salu 'salt (acc.)', Old Irish salann (salei-no-) 'salt', Latvian sals* (salis) 'salt', Old Church Slavonic solu, Tocharian A sale* 'salt'
Suffixed S-stem sals-io- in Alsium (Etruria)
Suffixed R-stem saler-no- in Salernum (Campania)
Compound first term sal-apa in Salapia (Apulia)

sei- 'to be damp, to drip'

Extension: seil-

Reconstructed from Old irish silid* 'he flows', Old Saxe sioloth 'lake'
Suffixed zero-grade form sil-_ero- in Silarus fl. (Campania)

Extension: sein-

No appellatives found
Full-grade form sein-a in Sena (Etruria).
Compound zero-grade form sin- in Sinuessa (Campania)

Extension: sei-r-

No appellatives found
Zero-grade I-stem siri- in Siris fl. (Lucania)

Extension: seit-

Reconstructed from Lithuanian sietuva* 'a deep place in the river, pool'
Suffixed full-grade form seit-i-a in Setia (Latium)

sem- 'to pour'

Reconstructed from Greek amaomai 'I gather', Latin sentina 'wake', Old Irish sem- 'to pour out', Lithuanian semiu 'to acquire'
Suffixed full-grade form sem-no- in Semnum (Lucania)
Suffixed full-grade form sem_e-ro in Semirus fl. (Bruttium)

sent- 'to take a direction, go'

Reconstructed from Avestan hant-* 'to arrive', Old Irish set 'way, path', Old High German sind 'way', Lithuanian siunciu 'to send'
Full-grade form sent- from whence Sentinum (Umbria)

ser- 'to flow'

Reconstructed from sarati '(he) flows', sara 'flow, stream', Latin serum 'whey', Middle Irish sirid (seriti) '(he) wanders' Lithuanian apsirti* 'to surround'
A-grade form sar- in Sarus fl. (Samnium)
O-grade form sor-a in Sora (Latium)
Suffixed zero-grade (or A-grade) form s_er-no- in Sarnus fl. (Campania), Calasarna (Lucania)

serk- 'hedge, to fence'

Reconstructed from Greek erkos 'enclosure, fence', Latin sarcio, -ire 'to remake, repair', Umbrian sarsite 'sarcite' Hittite sar-nin-k- 'to replace'
Suffixed zero-grade form s_erk- from whence Sarsina (Umbria)

seu- 'juice, liquid'

Reconstructed from Greek uei (suio) 'it rains', Albanian shi* (su-) 'rain', Tocharian A swese* 'rain', Sanskrit soma- 'Soma', Avestan hauma- 'id.', Old High German sou 'juice'
Suffixed zero-grade (or O-grade) form sua-sa in Suasa (Umbria)
Suffixed zero-grade (or O-grade) form sua-na in Suana (Etruria)
Zero-grade form (or A-grade) s_eu-o- in Savo fl. (Campania)

(s)keb(h)- 'to work with a sharp instrument'

Reconstructed from Latin scabo, -ere 'to scrape', Middle Irish (s)cipp 'hand', Gothic skaban 'to scrape', Latvian skabrs 'sharp'
A-grade form kab(h)- in Cabum (Latium)

skel- 'to cut' (in origin, the silicic cutter ?)

Reconstructed from Sanskrit kala 'little part', Greek skallo 'I dig', skullo (sk_olio-) 'I lacerate', Albanian hale* (skolia) 'scale', Latin silex, -icis* 'silicic', culter, -tri 'knife, cutter', Middle Irish scoilt 'cleavage', Gothic skilja 'butcher'
Suffixed O-grade sk_oli-et-io in Scylletium (Bruttium)

Variant: (s)kep-

Reconstructed from Persian kafad 'gap, crack', Albanian kep 'axe', Greek skopelos 'stone, rock', skapto 'to dig', Latin scapula, Umbrian scapla 'shoulder', Ols Church Slavonic skopiti 'to carve'
A-grade form skapt- in Scaptia (Latium)

(s)ker- 'to cut'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit apa-skara- 'excrement', Armenian k'orem 'to rasp', Greek keiro 'to deposit', Albanian hirrë (sk_er-na) 'whey', Latin corium* 'thick leather', caro 'flesh', Umbrian karu 'part', Oscan carneis 'in parts', Old Irish scaraim (sk_era-mi) '(I) separate', Old Icelandic skera* 'to cut', Lithuanian skiriu 'to separate', Russian kora 'crust'
O-grade form kor-a in Cora (Latium)

Extension sker-d(h)-

Reconstructed from Lithuanian skardus 'cliffy, scarped', Old Irish scerdid '(he) scrapes off'
Suffixed O-grade form kordh-no- from whence Corfinium (Samnium)
Suffixed N-stem (?) kerdhen- from whence Cerfennia (Samnium)

(s)kerbh- 'to turn, curve'

Reconstructed from Greek karphos* (from kr_ebh-) 'chaff', Latin corbis* 'basket', Old Icelandic skorpna 'to shrink'
Suffixed O-grade korbh-i- in Corbio (Latium)
Suffixed A-grade form k_erbhi-n-io in Carbinium (Apulia)

Extension: (s)ker-k-

Reconstructed from Greek kirkos* 'ring', Latin circus 'circle', Czech i 'nape'
Suffixed form kerk-a-i- in Circeius m. (Latium)

(s)keu- 'to cover, wrap'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit skunati 'he covers', Armenian ciw 'roof', Greek skunia 'brows', Latin obscurus 'dark (< covered)', Old Irish cul* 'back', Old icelandic skali 'hut', Lithuanian kevalas 'eggshell'
Reduplication form ku-ku-lo- in Cuculum (Samnium)

Extension: (s)k(e)rei- 'to cut, separate'

Reconstructed from Greek krino (kri-n-i-o-) 'I separate', Latin cerno, -ere* (cri-n-o-) 'to separate, to discern', Old Irish criathar* (krei-tro-) 'filter', Gallo-Romance crinare* 'to split', crena 'crack, gap', Gothic hrains (kroi-ni-) 'clean (filtered)', Old Church Slavonic krayu* (kroio-) 'edge'
Suffixed zero-grade form kri-n- in Falacrinae (Samnium)
Compound first term in Crinivolum (Umbria)

(s)lei- 'to pour, slimy'

Reconstructed from Greek aleison* (from lei-tu-om) 'container for the wine', limus* (loimos) 'mud', Welsh lli* (from li-iant-s) 'flood, sea', Old Icelandic lidh* 'beer', Lithuanian lieti 'to pour', Old Church Slavonic lijati 'to pour'
Suffixed zero-grade form li-ro- in Liris fl. (Latium)
Extension: (s)leib- 'slimy'

Reconstructed from Greek olibros 'slippery', Old High German slifan 'to slip'
Suffixed full grade S-stem leibos- in Leboriae (Campania)
Extension: (s)leit-

Reconstructed from Greek litos 'plain, slippery', Latin litus, -oris (leitos) 'seaside'
Suffixed zero-grade form lit-ro-no- in Liternum (Campania)

sne- 'to flow, swim, damp'

Extension: sneu-

Reconstructed from Greek neo 'I swim', Latin nutrio, -ire (sneu-tri-) 'to nourish'
Suffixed extended form sneum- from which Numana (Picenum), Numicius fl. (Latium), Numistro (Lucania)

Extension sne-t-
Reconstructed from Latin nato, -are* 'to swim', Welsh naid 'jump', Armenian nay 'wet', Greek notis 'wetness'
Suffixed zero-grade form n_eti- from which Natiolum (Apulia)
(s)pel- 'to split, cut off'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit sphatati 'he tears', Albanian palë (polna) 'party', Latin spolium, Old High German spaltan* 'to split', Irish altain (paltina) 'knife'
Suffixed O-grade form spol-eto- from whence Spoletium (Umbria)
sta- 'to stand'

Reconstructed from Avestan stayan* 'to stand', Latin sto, stare 'to stay', Umbrian stahu 'I stay', Old Irish tau (sta-io) 'I am', Old High german sten* 'to stay', Old Church Slavonic stati 'to stand', Tocharian A ste '(he) is'
Compound second-term ste/sto in Praeneste (Latium), Turiostum (Lucania)
Extension: stat-

Reconstructed from Sanskrit sthita- 'standing', Greek statos 'posed', Old Irish fossad (upo-statos) 'fixed', Latin statio* 'place', Oscan statif 'place', Gothic staths 'place, town'
Suffixed form stat-on- from whence Statonia (Etruria)
Reduplication: si-sta-

Reconstructed from Latin sisto 'I lay', Umbrian sestu 'I lay', Sanskrit tisthati 'to become', Old Irish -sissiur 'I stand'
Full-grade form sest- from whence Sestinum (Umbria)

steb(h)- 'post, pillar, to support'

Reconstructed from Old Icelandic stopull 'post, tower', Sanskrit stamba- 'bush' (< 'stump'), Middle Irish sab 'shaft', Old Prussian stabis 'stone'
Suffixed A-grade form stab-ia- in Stabiae (Campania)

(s)tei- 'sharp'

Reconstructed from Avestan staera 'mountain top', Latin stilus 'sharp stem, stylus'
Suffixed form teia-te- in Teate (Samnium)
Suffixed form teia-no- in Teanum Sidicinum (Campania), Teanum Apulum (Apulia)
Suffixed zero-grade form tio-ra in Tiora (Samnium)

stel- 'to put, place'
Reconstructed from Sansrit sthala- 'elevation', Armenian steln 'root', Latin locus (stlo-ko-) 'place', Anglo-Saxon stael* 'place', Old Prussian stallit 'to stand'
Suffixed zero-grade form stl_e-no- in Sturnium (Apulia)

(s)ter- 'stiff, solid'

Reconstructed from Greek stereos 'stiff', Welsh trin (stre-na) 'pain', Germanic stara- 'stiff'
Suffixed form ter-ia in Fabrateria, Pandateria i. (Latium)
Suffixed O-grade form tor-io- in Politorium (Latium)
Suffixed full-grade form ter_e-na in Terina (Bruttium)

Extension: (s)terg- 'strong'

Reconstructed from Old Hoigh German starc (Germanic starku) 'strong', Latvian terglis* 'stubborn', Latin tergus, -oris '(hard) back of the animal'
Suffixed O-grade or zero-grade form torg'-na in Tarquinia (Etruria)

s(u)ebh- 'of its own kind'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit sabha 'assembly, convention', Gothic sibja 'clan, tribe', Germanic sweba- 'free', Old Church Slavonic svoboda* 'freedom'
Full-grade form s(u)ebha (?) in Heba (Etruria)

sueid- 'to shine'

Reconstructed from Avestan xaena (xaed-na-) 'blistering', Latin sidus, -eris* 'star', Lithuanian svidus 'blank, bright'
Suffixed zero-grade form suid-lo- in Suillum (Umbria)

suel- 'to drink (?)'

Reconstructed from Avestan x'ar 'to savor', English swill
Suffixed zero-grade form sul-mon- in Sulmo (Samnium), Sulmo (Latium)

tel- 'to be still'

Reconstructed from Old Irish tu(i)lid (toleio) 'he sleeps', Lithuanian tyliu* 'to be silent'
Suffixed O-grade form tol_e-ro- in Tolerus fl. (Latium)
Suffixed O-grade form tel-on-io in Telonius fl. (Samnium)

tel(e)- 'flat, flat ground, board'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit tala-* 'plain, flat', Greek telia 'board', Latin tellus (tel-no-s) 'earth', Old Irish talam* (t_el_e-mo) 'earth', Old Icelandic thilja* 'deal, plank', Old Prussian talus 'floor'
Suffixed form tel_e-mon in Telamo (Etruria)
Suffixed form tel-n-ena- in Tellenae (Latium)
Suffixed form teles- in Telesia (Hirpinia)

tem(e)- 'dark'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit tamas- 'dark', Latin tenebrae (temafra-) 'darkness', Middle Irish teim* 'dark, gray', Old High German demar 'dawn', Lithuanian tamsa 'darkness', Old Church Slavonic tuma 'darkness', Tocharian tamasse 'darkness'
Suffixed zero-grade form or S-stem t_eme(s)ro- in Tamarus fl. (Hirpinia)
Suffixed full-grade S-stem temes-a in Tempsa (Bruttium)

ter- 'to cross, transgress, to stay'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit tarati* 'he translates (across the river)', tara- 'vigorous', taranta- 'sea', Greek terthron 'edge'
Suffixed zero-grade (or A-grade) form t_er-ent- in Tarentum (Apulia)

tergh- ?

Reconstructed from Albanian treg, Slavic turgu, Lithuanian turgus
Suffixed full-grade root tergh-ela in Tergila (Lucania)

ters- 'dry, thirst'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit tr_esyati* '(he) thirsts', Greek teromai 'to be dry', Latin torreo 'to roast', terra 'Earth' (tersa-), Old Irish tir* 'region', Gothic gathairsan 'to wither'
Suffixed form tres-te- in Treste fl. (Samnium)
A-grade form tars- in Tarracina (Latium)

teu- 'to swell, crowd, folk, fat, strong, boil, abscess'
Extension: teur-

Reconstructed from Sanskrit tura-* 'strong, rich', Old Icelandic thori 'crowd, mass', Greek ti-tyros 'bock, satyr', Avestan tuiri- 'whey', Greek tyros 'cheese', Latin turo-s 'swollen'
Suffixed zero-grade form turi-osto- in Turiostum (Lucania)
Suffixed zero-grade form t_euro-ent-io in Tauroentum (Bruttium)
Full-grade form Teura (Bruttium)

Extension: teuta- 'people, land'

Reconstructed from Oscan touto* 'people, town', Old Irish tuath 'people, land', Gothic thiuda 'people', Latvian tauta 'people'
Suffixed form touti-ko- in Aequum Tuticum (Hirpinia)
Suffixed full-grade form teut-_er-ia in Teutria i. (Apulia)

tei- 'to melt, dissipate, decay'

Extension: tibh-

Reconstructed from Ossetic cirw (tibh-no-) 'barm, yeast', Greek tiphos* 'swampy place'
Suffixed form tibh-ro- in Tiberis fl. (Latium)
Suffixed S-stem tibhes-no- in Tifernus fl. (Samnium), Tifernum Metaurense, Tifernum Tiberinum (Umbria)

Extension tin-

Reconstructed from Old Saxon thinan* 'to be wet', Old Church Slavonic tina 'slime', Latin tinca (tin-ica) 'tench (a fish)'
Suffixed form tin-ua (?) in Tinna fl. (Picenum)

treb- 'building, dwelling'

Reconstructed from Latin trabs* 'beam', Oscan triibum (treb-) 'house, building', Umbrian tremnu* (treb-no-) 'tabernaculo', Old Welsh treb* 'dwelling', Old High German dorf 'village', Lithuanian troba 'house, building'
Full-grade form treb- in Trebiae (Umbria), Treba (Latium)
Suffixed form treb- from whence Trebula (Samnium), Trebula Suffenas (Latium), Trebula Balliensis (Campania), Trebula Mutuesca (Samnium)

tres- 'to tremble'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit trasati* 'he trembles', Latin terreo, -ere 'to terrify', Greek treo 'I tremble', Middle Irish tarrach 'tremolous', Lithuanian trisu 'I tremble'
Suffixed zero-grade form tr_esu-men- in Trasimennus lac. (Etruria)

ueib- 'to turn, sway'

Reconstructed from Latin vibro, -are 'to vibrate', vibix 'wale', Gothic weipan 'to crown'
Suffixed zero-grade form uib-_eno in Vibinum (Hirpinia)
Zero-grade N-stem uib-on in Vibo (Bruttium)

ueis- 'to flow, poison'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit vesati* '(he) melts', Greek ios 'poison', Latin virus 'juice', vena (ueis-na) 'vein', Middle Irish fi 'poison', Welsh gwyar* (ueisaro-) 'blood', Old Icelandic veisa* 'swamp'
Suffixed zero-grade form uis-uent- in Visuentum (Umbria)
Suffixed full-grade form ueis-ent-in Visentius fl., Visentium (Etruria)

uel(e)- 'to turn, wind, round'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit valati 'he wends', vala- 'cave', Greek eileo 'I roll', Albanian vale (uel_ena) 'wave', Latin vola* 'curvature', vallis (u_elnis) 'valley', Old Icelandic valr* 'round', Church Slavonic valu 'wave'
O-grade form vol_e- in Volaterrae (Etruria), Volturnus fl. (Campania)

uelk- 'wet, damp'

Reconstructed from Old Irish folc 'flood', Old High German welh wetness', Latvian valks 'damp', valka 'damp place'
O-grade form volk- in Volcei (Lucania)

Variant: uelg-

Reconstructed from Old High German welc 'damp', Lithuanian vilgau, -yti 'to dampen', Russian vulguku 'damp', vologa 'liquid'
O-grade form volk- (or volg-) in Volci (Etruria)

uen(e)- 'to strive, wish for, love'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit vanati* 'he loves', Latin venus 'love', venor, -ari 'to hunt', Old Irish fine (venja) 'stock, family', Old Icelandic vinr* 'friend'
Suffixed S-stem uenus-ia in Venusia (Apulia)

uers-

Reconstructed from Latin verruca (from uers-), Sanskrit varsman-* 'high', Lithuanian virsus 'highest peak', Old Church Slavonic vruchu 'top'
Suffixed form uers- from whence Verrugo (Latium)

uer-t 'to turn, wind'

Reconstructed from Sanskrit vartati 'he turns', Greek ratane (Wrat-) 'muddler', Latin verto, -ere* 'to turn', Old Irish ad-ferta 'to be adverse', Gothic wairthan 'to become', Lithuanian verciu 'I turn', Common Slavic vurtjo 'I turn', Tocharian wart-* 'to throw'
Suffixed full-grade form uert-_ena in Vertinae (Bruttium)

urag'h- 'thorn, spike'

Reconstructed from Greek rachos 'briar, thorny rice', Middle Irish fragg 'needle' (?)
Zero-grade N-stem *urgon in Urgo (Etruria)

Last modified: February 23, 2003
by Antonio Sciarretta
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