Etruria

Contents

This page deals with the VII region of Italy, bordered by the river Macra, the Appennine, the river Tiber and the Thyrrhenian sea. It includes the small peoples of Falisci and Capenates close to the Latium's border and the Etruscans proprie dicti. These have been subdivided here in a Southern Etruria and a Northern Etruria, divided by the Umbro river, plus the seven Etrurian Isles in the Tyrrhenian sea.

Common remarks: the place-names have been put in the nominative case, an asterisk * means not attested, reconstructed form. The late place-names of probable Latin origin have not been included. The IE roots are in the form given by Pokorny's Indogermanische Wörterbuch. The links will be active when the single pages will be published, see the main page. For any comment, suggestion, email me.

Albinia fl.

• Place: river Albegna, province Grosseto, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Albinia fl. (Peut.) Alminia fl. (Marit.)
• Etymology: The name is likely derived from the IE root *albho- 'white', like many other hydronyms, among which, in the same Italic domain Albula fl. (Picenum). The feature *bh>b cannot be explained from the Umbrian as an Eastern Italic language. Therefore, either a previous, Western Italic stratum has to be postulated, or the name has to be explained as a late, Latin form, or even as "Pelasgian".

Algae

• Place: Mattonara di Civitavecchia, province Roma, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Algae (Ant.)
• Etymology: Unknown. Possibly, the name may be related to Latin algor 'cold', for which an IE root *algh- 'frost, cold' has been postulated. Then the name could be even "Pelasgian", given its shift *gh>g.

Alma fl.

• Place: river Alma, province Grosseto, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Alma fl. (Marit.)
• Etymology: The name is explained by Pokorny from an extension *alm- of the IE root *al- 'to grow, nourish', and compared with Almus fl. (Thracia), *Alma fl. (Britannia).

Alsium

• Place: Palo di Ladispoli, province Roma, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Alsium (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Cic., Nam., Peut.)
• Etymology: Unknown. Founded by the "Pelasgians", according to the tradition. Tentatively, the name may be related to Greek hals 'salt, sea', which derives from the IE root *sal-. But the "Pelasgian" language as defined by Georgiev should have retained the initial s.

Axia

• Place: Castel d'Asso di Viterbo, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Axia (Cic.)
• Etymology: Unknown. Tentatively, the name may be derived from an S-stem *ak'es- related to teh IE root *ak'- 'sharp, stone'. The place-name is explained then from a zero-grade *aks-.

Blera

• Place: Blera (Bieda), province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Blera (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Peut.)
• Etymology: The name has been compared with Greek blerai 'a spiny plant' (Alessio-De Giovanni, UTET). The initial b can be hardly explained from an Italic language. Instead, a language in which *bh>b has to be invoked. The "Pelasgian" or pre-Greek language was actually characterized by this shift. As for the meaning, many IE roots could fit, but particularly likely is a formation *bhles-ra- > blera 'the shining', from the root *bhles- 'to shine', possibly a variant of *bhlei- 'to shine' or *bhel- 'id.'.

Caere, Agylla

• Place: Cerveteri, province Roma, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Agylla (Plin., Strab., Verg., Nam.) Caere (Ptol., Plin., Strab.) Etruscan Cisra (Verrius Flaccus ?)
• Etymology: Many names for an important town. According to Pliny, Agylla is a Pelasgian name, given to the town by its founders. This is in agreement with the existence of the sound g<*gh in "Pelasgian" or pre-Greek language, postulated by Georgiev.
  The second name was spelled chaire in Etruscan, and should derive from an earlier *keis-ra, which explains also the variant form ceizra. An IE root that fits such a place-name is *geis-, an extension of *gei- 'to turn, bend'. But this requires a shift *g>k, which was one of the distinguishing traits of the "Pelasgian". The Etruscan form was likely an adaption (with *k>ch) of the pre-existing name.

Caletra

• Place: Marsiliana di Manciano, province Grosseto, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Caletra (Plin.)
• Etymology: Unknown. A toponymic serie *kal- has been recognized by Villar and others and attributed to a variant *kal- of the IE root *kel- 'spotted'. The main toponymycal meaning is 'mud, clay'.

Ciminus lac., Ciminius m., Ciminia silva

• Place: lake Vico (Ciminus lac.) and mount Cimino (Ciminius m.), province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Ciminus lac. (Strab., Verg., Peut.) Ciminius m. (Colum., Flor., Peut.) Ciminia silva (Liv.)
• Etymology: Unknown. Tentatively, the name may be explained as derived from an unknown place-name *Cim- (the lake of *Cim-). This may have been related to Caere, from the same IE root *geis- 'to turn, bend', but at zero-grade and with a different formation: *geis-ma-.

Cremera fl.

• Place: river Valchetta, province Roma, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Cremera fl. (Liv.)
• Etymology: Unknown. The first part of the name recalls that of Cremona (Transpadana), which has tentatively explained by Pokorny from an IE root *krem-, meaning 'garlic, onion' or even 'ash-tree'. An alternative explaination, that fits better a river-name, is from the IE root *grem- 'damp, to sink', with the shift *g>k that is compatible with the presence of the "Pelasgians" on the south coastal part of Etruria. In this case, the name could be analyzed as *gremes-ra.

Heba

• Place: Sant'Andrea di Magliano, province Grosseto, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Heba (Ptol.)
• Etymology: It is another case of an Etruscan town with a name containing a voiced stop, b, when it is commonly accepted that the Etruscan phonology only included voiced and aspirated voiced stops. The etmology is unknown, unless the "Pelasgian" language, which was characterized by the shift *bh>b, also lost the initial sw- like the Greek did (but the "Pelasgian" preserved the regular s-). In this case, the name could be explained from a *s(u)ebha 'clan, tribe', but also 'assembly, convention', that derives, through the extension *s(u)ebh- 'of its own kind', from the IE reflexive pronoun *se-.

Ferentum

• Place: etruscan and roman towns at Pianicara and Acquarossa di Viterbo, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Ferentia (Ptol.) Ferentinum (Plin., Strab.) Ferentium (Svet.)
• Etymology: The name has a close counterpart in Ferentinum (Latium) and, like this, has been explained from a pre-Roman stem *frent- 'deer' (UTET). But this stem has an IE origin and cannot be invoked now. Instead, the Italic series *fer- can be likely related to Latin fero, ferre 'to bear', ferax 'fruitful', Eastern Italic fer- 'to bear', all from the IE root *bher- 'to bear, carry'. The ending -ent- is a participe marker, and the meaning of the place-name can be reconstructed as '(the place) bearing (fruits), fertile'.

Fregenae

• Place: Maccarese di Fiumicino, province Roma, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Fregenae (Plin., Strab., Liv.)
• Etymology: The name can be compared with Fregellae (Latium), in the same Italic domain. These place-names may be derived from the IE root *bhreg'- 'to break', and explained from some unknown appellative. For the meaning, the relationship between Latin frango 'to break' and Romance fracta 'bush, wood' can be compared.

Graviscae

• Place: Porto Clementino di Tarquinia, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Graviscae (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Verg., Mel., Nam.)
• Etymology: The name has been related by various scholars to a pre-IE stem *graba 'area with pebbles, scarped slope, stony bed of a stream'. More likely, *grava is a Latin appellative taken from (or simply co-radical of) a Gaulish *grava 'gravel'. This word derives, according to Pokorny, from the IE root *ghreu- 'to rub', with which also Graviscae could be related, meaning 'sandy' or similar. The feature *gh>g excludes an Italic origin, and considering also the suffix -isk-, a "Pelasgian" or pre-Greek origin of the place-name becomes possible.

Minio fl.

• Place: river Mignone, province Viterbo, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Minio fl. (Verg., Mel.)
• Etymology: The name has various counterparts outside Italy, for example Minius fl. (Tarraconensis), from which an hydronymic stem *mein- 'swampy, muddy' has been postulated by Udolph and Villar. But according to Pokorny, which explicitly mention Minio, this stem corresponds to the IE root *mei- 'to wander, go'. Then the river-names would mean 'the wanderer' or similar, and the frequent names in *main- (for example Maenoba fl.) would represent an ablaut-form in an A-language. But this explaination is uncertain because some Baltic appellatives of the type main- can be hardly explained from a meaning 'to wander, go', and also because nearly all the river-names show a n. Therefore, there was probably an independent root *mein-.

*Musarna

• Place: Musarna di Viterbo, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: inferred from the survival of the name
• Etymology: The ending of the name, -arna is usually considered as typically Etruscan. Nevertheless, when in the first part it is possible to recognize the productive IE root *meus- 'moss, mould', that is an extension of *meu- 'wet, dirt, to wash', the ending -arna is found also in Vibarna (Apulia), where no Etruscan influence can be assumed. Maybe the name is a formation *mus-r-_ena in an Italic environment.

Osa fl.

• Place: river Osa, province Grosseto, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Osa fl. (Ptol.)
• Etymology: Unknown. It has been explained with a pre-IE stem *ausa 'spring' by various substratist scholars. Udolph has postulated an old river-name *Osa in Poland, corresponding to the present-day river Osa, and has related it to this Osa. According to Pittau, this Osa and the Sardinian river-name Flumendosa=Flumen d'Osa may be explained from a Sardian appellative *osa 'mouth of a river'. The idea behind this assumption is certainly a comparison with Latin os, oris 'mouth'. Since this derives from the IE root *ous- 'mouth', a co-radical in some "Tyrrhenian" language (an O-language) could explain both the Sardinian and Etrurian river names. Remark: this explaination is an also an alternative for the hydronymic series *aus-.

Pyrgi

• Place: Santa Severa di Santa Marinella, province Roma, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Pyrgi (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Liv., Mel., Nam., Peut.)
• Etymology: The place-name is likely related to Greek pyrgos 'tower', that is also found in the name of Pyrgus (Arcadia). The Greek appellative has been explained as from a "Pelasgian" language, in which the IE aspirated voiced stops were dissimilated and then de-aspirated (*bh>b), and the voiced stops became voicelss (*b>p). This explaines the relationship between pyrgos/Pyrgi and the IE root *bher(e)g'h- 'high, mountain', that can be summarized as *bh_erg'h->*b_ergh->*purg-. This also means that this "Pelasgian" was a centum language, and had a development of the sonant r into ur. This etymology is one of the clearest proofs of a "Pelasgian" presence in southern Etruria, as reported by various classical sources.

Regae, Regisvilla

• Place: Murelle di Montalto di Castro, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Regisvilla (Strab.) Regae (Marit.)
• Etymology: It has been supposed that Regae was the original Etruscan name, while Regisvilla a late Latinization, influenced by Latin regis villa 'the king's estate'. If Regae is an old name, it may be related to the IE root *reg'- 'damp, rain', like it was proposed by Udolph for Regillus lac. (Latium). The place was situated on the coast; it was the harbour of Volci. A tradition, referred by Strabo, speaks about a Pelasgian king of Regae, which is in agreement with the reconstruction made, if "Pelasgian" was a centum language (*g'>g). Otherwise, the name can be of Italic origin.

Rusellae

• Place: Roselle di Grosseto, province Grosseto, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Rusellae (Ptol., Plin., Liv.)
• Etymology: The name may belong to a series *rus- and compared with Rusium (Thracia), Riusiava (Germania) and Rusidava (?, Dacia). The first place-name is explained by Duridanov from some appellative meaning 'pit' or similar, that are derived from the IE root *reus-, an extension of *reu- 'to tear out, dig out, open, acquire'. But possibly the original appellative was something similar to 'wall made with debris', that fits well a newly founded town, since the stones resulting from the 'openinig' of a new land were then used to build repairs.

Sabate, Sabatinus lac.

• Place: Carano di Trevignano Romano (Sabate), lake Bracciano (Sabatinus lac.), province Roma, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Sabate (Strab., Peut.) Sabatinus lac. (Front., Colum.)
• Etymology: The name of the lake is likely from that of the town, which is mentioned only later. Various names of the series *sab- are explained by Pokorny with an IE root *sab- 'to taste, perceive', probably through an intermediate step like Illyrian sabaium 'beer'. By the way, the name is very close to that of the Sabini, from which also Sabelli (*sab-no-lo-) and Samnium. These are explained by Pokorny from the IE root *s(u)ebh- 'of its own kind', but the vocalism in a is unclear in this case.

Salebro

• Place: Serrata Martini di Castiglione della Pescaia, province Grosseto, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Saleborna (Peut.)
• Etymology: The name seems to be a compound with the stem *sal-, that is the IE root *sal- 'salt, salty water', very fitting because the place was over a dune separating the Prile lac. from the sea. But the rest of the name is hard to explain. Maybe it was an instrumental marker -bhro-, and the name was originally an appellative related to the salt.

Statonia

• Place: probably Sparne di Pitigliano, province Grosseto, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Statonia (Plin., Strab., Varr.)
• Etymology: The name recalls immediately the IE root *sta- 'to stand' and, in particular, its extension *stat-, to which is related Latin statio 'place'. So, the place-name has an obvious meaning, but nothing can be said about the linguistic stratum to which it belongs.

Suana

• Place: Sovana di Sorano, province Grosseto, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Suana (Ptol., Plin.)
• Etymology: Possibly, the name is related to some IE root *seu-, for example *seu- 'juice, liquid' as an original river-name. The root is in the zero-grade or O-grade (hence *Sovana). Compare it with Suasa (Umbria).

Sutrium

• Place: Sutri, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Sutrium (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Liv., Plut., Peut.)
• Etymology: The place-name was spelled in Etruscan as s(h)uthri and was explained from a "mediterranean" stem *sutro- 'sterile, unfruitful', which would be also the origin of some Romance appellative (UTET). This meaning is rather well fit by the IE root *(k)seud- 'to grind in little pieces', that origined various appellatives meaning 'powder', then 'meager'. The place-name can be explained as "Pelasgian", since for this language, a shift *d>t was postulated. Then, the Etruscan form is only an adaption (with *t>th) of a pre-existing name. An alternative explaination (Zavaroni) relates the place-name with an Etruscan suth- 'to stay, place, put', from which suthi 'tomb'.

Tarquinia, Corythus

• Place: Civita di Tarquinia (Corneto), province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Tarquinia (Ptol., Plin., Peut.) Corythus (Verg.)
• Etymology: Probably, Corythus was an older name of Tarquinia. This was spelled tarchna, tarchuna in Etruscan, and it has been related to the name of Tarchon, its mythical founder (UTET). According to Zavaroni, the name of Tarchon, from which that of the town comes, means '(the one) that perceives', being related to Etruscan tarchi 'perception', and having an IE origin (*tark(h)- 'to perceive, grasp, grab'). But the Luwian and Hittite deity Tarhun-(da), very close to Tarchon, was rather a god of conquest, and his name has been associated to Hittite tarh 'to conquer' (Sewell). Here, very tentatively, a relationship is proposed with the extension *(s)terg- of the IE root *(s)ter- 'stiff, solid'. Then, the place-name should have meant 'the strong' in a language, where *g>k. This language can likely be the "Pelasgian" or pre-Greek, as proposed by Georgiev, and the A-vocalism can be explained from a sonant r in a zero-grade form, or if this language was an A-language, from an O-grade. Then, the Etruscan form is only an adaption (with *k>ch and *t>*t>t) of a pre-existing name.
  The first name, Corythus, probably referred to the hill (Corythus mons) is very likely "Pelasgian" and have the same origin of Corinthus (Argolis), to which town the history of Corythus/Tarquinia has a close relationship. The name has been explained by Georgiev as "Pelasgian", from IE *gwer- 'mountain' at a O-grade, given the "Pelasgian" shifts *g>k, *t>th.

Telamo

• Place: arcaic and classical towns at Bengodi and Talamonaccio di Grosseto, province Grosseto, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Telamon (Ptol.) Telamo (Plin., Peut.)
• Etymology: It was spelled tlamu in Etruscan and is usually derived from an Etruscan personal name Telamon (UTET). But in the ending of the place-name we can recognize the IE suffix -men- in its O-grade, while the first part recalls the Celtic *t_el_e-mo 'earth', from the IE root *tel(e)- 'flat, flat ground, board'. The Etruscan form is an adaption (with *t>t) of a pre-existing name.

Visentium

• Place: close to Capodimonte, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Vesentium (Plin.)
• Etymology: The name has an exact counterpart in *Visentius fl. and, in the Celtic domain, Visentium (Belgica) and various Visontium. Probably, it can be compared also with Visuentum and Vesinica (Umbria), mentioned by Pliny but not identified. Both the variants ves- and vis- can be explained from an IE stem veis-, given the well-known Italic development *ei>e. An IE root that fits the river name and the fact that Visentium was close to a lake (lago di Bolsena), is *ueis- 'to flow, poison'.

Volci

• Place: Vulci di Montalto di Castro, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Volci (Ptol., Plin.)
• Etymology: Spelled velch in Etruscan, the name may be derived from the IE root *uelk- 'wet, damp'. A variant of this root was *uelg-, that can also fit the place-name Volci, given the shift postulated for the "Pelasgian" or pre-Greek language *g>k. Then, the Etruscan form is only an adaption (with k>ch) of a pre-existing name.

Volsinii

• Place: etruscan town and roman colony at Orvieto, province Terni, region Umbria and close to Bolsena, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Volsinium (Ptol.) Volsinii (Plin., Strab., Liv., Juv.)
• Etymology: Following the Etruscan spelling velzna, the name has been compared with Volaterrae and explained from an Etruscan stem *vel- with a presumed meaning of 'hill' (UTET).

Capena

• Place: Capena (Leprignano), province Roma, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Capena (Liv., Plin., Plut.)
• Etymology: It has been attributed to the Etruscan and explained after an appellative cape 'pot' and then 'valley'. The Etruscan spelling would have been capna, capisna and the ethnical name capenate (UTET). This etymology is supported by the presence of the typical Etruscan suffix -na. Nevertheless, the Capenates were likely Italic in origin. Then, to explain the place-name, an IE root that fits in this case could be *kap- 'a piece of land'. Probably, an S-stem *Capes-na should be invoked in order to explain the Etruscan capisna, which would have been an adaption (with *k>k) of the pre-existing name.

Falerii

• Place: etruscan town and roman colony at Civita Castellana and Santa Maria di Fabrica di Roma, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Falerium (Ptol.) Falerii (Strab., Liv.) Falisca (Plin.)
• Etymology: The name has a counterpart in Falerio (Picenum) and Falernum (Campania). While the second may be related to the Etruscans, an Etruscan influence is not proved for the Picenum. Thus the name may be explained as Italic (in this case, just Faliscan), for the presence of the initial f. Since the ethnical is Falisci, the original form of the place-name should have been *Fales-, with the intervocalis s rhotacized as it is common in the Italic languages. Tentatively, the Italic names of the serie *fal- can be explained as from an appellative meaning 'clearance', from the IE root *bhel- 'shining, white'. If, on the contrary, the name were Etruscan ("Pelasgian"), then a root *pel- 'to cover' could be invoked, as it was done by Zavaroni.

Fescennia

• Place: not identified, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Fescennia (Plin., Verg.)
• Etymology: The name may be compared with Fiscellus m. (Samnium), in the same Italic domain. Tentatively, it may be derived from the IE root *bheid- 'to prick, pierce' and explained as a formation *bheid-sko- with a meaning of 'gap, crack' and after the Eastern Italic phonetic feature *ei>e.

Nepet

• Place: Nepi, province Viterbo, region Lazio, Italy
• Name: Nepeta (Ptol., Strab.) Nepet (Plin., Liv.) Nepe (Peut.)
• Etymology: The name is usually considered Etruscan (UTET), and explained from an appellative meaning 'water'. This can only be explained from the IE root *(e)nebh- 'wet, damp, water, clouds', with which Pokorny explains tentatively the God's name Neptunus. The shift from bh to p requires, to be explained, an intermediate step b that could have resulted from a stops' dissimilation according to the phonetic features of "Pelasgian". The direct shift *bh>p is instead "Ligurian".

Arnus fl.

• Place: river Arno, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Arnus fl. (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Peut.)
• Etymology: For this name a pre-IE origin is often invoked (UTET). But the various stems ar-, very common in river-names, can be likely derived from the IE root *er- 'to move', which have a lot of extensions and forms. In this case, the name is explained as an adjectival *_er-na- and the meaning can be 'a moving (river)'. Compare with Arna (Umbria), a town, but especially with Arnus fl. (Tarraconensis) and Arnapia fl. (Germania). The origin of the name can be Umbrian.

Arretium

• Place: Arezzo, province Arezzo, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Arretium (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Liv.)
• Etymology: From the name, a stem arra has been postulated, with uncertain meaning, and attributed to some pre-Etruscan language. It has been compared with Arnth, an Etruscan praenomen, latinized as Arruns, and with the Roman gens Arria, etc. (UTET). But in Etruscan the place-names derived from a personal name have the suffix -na. An alternative explanation is that Arretius is derivated from the name of a stream *Arretus, which may be explained as (Eastern) Italic from an earlier *Arsetus, through assimilation *rs>rr, common in Latin. This name, as many others in the serie *ars- (postulated by Duridanov, Villar, etc.) likely derive from the IE root *eres- 'to flow'.

Auser fl.

• Place: river Serchio, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Auser fl. (Plin.) Ausar fl. (Strab.)
• Etymology: Possibly, derived from the IE root *aues- 'to shine' as an R-stem *auser-. The place-name should thus have meant 'the shining (river)'. Compare with *Ausentus fl. (Etruria), Ausentum (Calabria) and, outside of Italy, Ausoba fl. (Hibernia). But see also the etymology given for Osa fl., that requires to be applied a weakened grade *_eus from the IE root *ous 'mouth'.

Biturgia

• Place: traditionally identified with Sansepolcro, province Arezzo, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Biturgia (Ptol.)
• Etymology: According to Villar, the name belongs to a serie *bai-t- that yields river-names like Baetis fl. (Baetica). More likely, the place-name can be Umbrian and derive from a personal or tribe name whose first element may be a *bitu- 'live' derived, as in Celtic *bitu from the IE root *gwei- 'to live'. Also the Eastern Italic languages, in fact, had the development *gw>b.

Bondelia

• Place: not identified, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Bondelia (Ptol.)
• Etymology: The place was situated at the borders with Liguria. Thus it is not unlikely a Gaulish origin for the name, from an appellative *bonda 'bottom, sole'. This word has originated from the IE root *bhudh- 'bottom'.

Caecina fl.

• Place: river Cecina, province Livorno, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Caecina fl. (Plin., Mel.)
• Etymology: Unclear. The river name has an exact counterpart in that of the Etruscan family Caecina, whose original spelling is probably *Ceicina (UTET). Compare also Caecubum (Campania) which possibly is related to Latin caecus 'blind, without light'.

Clanis fl.

• Place: river Chiani (Val di Chiana), region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Clanis (Plin., Tac.)
• Etymology: The name has an exact counterpart in Clanis, the old name of the Liris fl. (Latium). It has also been compared with various place-names of the type glan-, all in the Celtic domain. For the sostratists, a stem clan-/glan- has to be invoked, meaning 'mud, slime' (UTET). But, on the contrary, the Celtic appellatives mean 'clean, shine' and are usually derived from the form *g'hl_e- of the IE root *g'hel- 'to shine green, gold, blue'. Since the Etruscan spelling was probably *clan-, with a c deriving from an original *k, this etymology seems not to fit the phonetics, unless a "Ligurian" language, characterized by a particular stop shift for which *gh>k, is invoked.

Camars, Clusium

• Place: Chiusi, province Siena, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Camars (Liv.) Clusium (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Liv.)
• Etymology: The pre-Etruscan, Umbrian name was Camars, spelled c(h)amar(s) in Etruscan. The name is likely related to that of Camerinum (Umbria), also for the origin.
  The successive name Clusium is spelled clevsi(n) in Etruscan. It can be compared with Cluviae (Samnium) and may be derived from an S-stem *cleu(e)s- of the IE root *k'leu- 'to hear'. Then, its origin could be a personal name, '(the town) of the famous'.

Cortona

• Place: Cortona, province Arezzo, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Cortona (Ptol., Plin., Liv.)
• Etymology: The name was spelled curtun (ethnical curthute) in Etruscan and it could be attributed to an O-language, likely the Umbrian, but also the Pelasgian is possible, if it wasn't an A-language. In both cases, a possible comparison that could be done is with various appellatives having the meaning 'grate, fence', or even 'steep, scarped', from the IE root *kert- 'to turn, roll, wind'. The ancient traditions linked Cortona with the Pelasgians and with Gortyna in Arcadia, the homeland of the Pelasgians. The Etruscan form is then an adaption (with c,t resulting from originally IE *k,t) of the pre-existing name.

Faesulae

• Place: Fiesole, province Firenze, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Faesulae (Ptol., Plin., Sall.)
• Etymology: The name has an initial f that is a sound typical of the Etruscan and of the Italic (Umbrian) languages. If the name is Umbrian, it may derive from the IE root *gwhei- 'bright, shining', via a suffixed form *fai-so-. Otherwise, the name has been compared with an Etruscan personal name Phesu, probably corresponding to Latin Faesonius.

Luca

• Place: Lucca, province Lucca, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Luca (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Peut.)
• Etymology: The name has been related to a Celto-Ligurian word luk 'swampy place' (UTET). But the stem *luk- is very diffused (Villar) and derives from the IE root *leuk- 'bright, to shine, to see'. Thus, Luca could have originally meant 'the shining', or maybe more practically 'a clearance (in the wood)'.

Luna

• Place: Luni di Sarzana, province La Spezia, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Luna (Ptol., Plin., Strab.)
• Etymology: Unknown. It has been related to the Latin word luna 'moon', for the shape of the harbour. But it is possible that the name comes from a previous *Luk-na '(the harbour) of Luca', from the town of Luca, situated in the interior.

Perusia

• Place: Perugia, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
• Name: Perusia (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Liv.)
• Etymology: The second part of the name is usually recongnized as a toponymic formant and compared with the one of Venusia (Lucania), Genusia (Apulia). The first part has been related to Latin parra, Umbrian parfa (*parsa) 'a kind of bird', from the IE root *sper, and the name has thus been explained as 'the town of the sparrow' (UTET). But the different vocalism with respect to the Umbrian word makes this etymology uncertain. So, it is possible to recall the Thracian place-name Perinthus, explained by Duridanov as an extension with the IE suffix -nt- of the root *per(u)- 'rock (knot ?)'. The place-name can therefore be Umbrian, from an S-stem *perus-.

Pisae

• Place: Pisa, province Pisa, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Pisae (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Mel., Peut.)
• Etymology: The name has a Greek counterpart in Pisae, and probably another in *Pisus (Thracia), according to the reconstruction of Duridanov. For this author, the name can be compared with various Baltic hydronymic appellatives and is explained as *pid-sa 'bog, where only small birch or spruce trees can grow', from an extension *peid- of the IE root *pei- 'fat, milk'. This meaning fits very well the original situation of the place.

Populonium

• Place: Populonia di Piombino, province Livorno, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Populonium (Ptol., Plin., Strab.) Populonia (Mel.)
• Etymology: The name was spelled pupluna or fufluna in Etruscan and thus it has been explained from that of the Etruscan god Fufluns 'Bacchus'. But it is not really known if there is a relationship between the two names, since Fufluna seems to be only the Etruscan (with *p>f) form of a pre-existing name. Other comparisons could then be made with Latin populus, and Pupulum (Sardinia), in the same Thyrrenian domain.

Sena

• Place: Siena, province Siena, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Sena (Ptol., Peut.) Senia (Plin.)
• Etymology: The name has been related to that of Seina, an Etruscan family, which has a Latin counterpart as Saenius (UTET). Thus, the name seems not to have a relationship with Sena Gallica (Umbria), which is likely of Gaulish origin. But if it is the family names that derives from the place and not vice versa, an alternative explaination could be found, by relating *Se(i)na to a hydronymic series *sein- postulated by Udolph as an extension of *sei- 'to be damp, to drip'. In such a case, the name of the town should derive from that of a spring or a stream. The development *ei>e seems to be Umbrian (Eastern Italic).

Trasimennus lac.

• Place: lake Trasimeno, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
• Name: Trasimennus lac. (Plin.) Trasumennus lac. (Liv., Cic.)
• Etymology: It is of Etruscan origin for UTET, because of the suffix -en(n)-. But the ending may be analyzed as -men-no-, thus the name may be explained from *trasu-men-, where -men- is a deverbal suffix and the first part is derived from the IE root *tres- 'to tremble', referred to the waves of the lake. If this speculation is correct, the name has meant '(lake) of the trembling'.

Umbro fl.

• Place: river Ombrone, province , region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Umbro fl. (Plin., Nam., Peut.)
• Etymology: The river's name has been explained from an Etruscan stem *amra, related to some personal names (UTET). But it is easier to explain the name from *m_ebh-ro-, an extension of the root *(e)nebh-/*mebh- 'wet, damp, water, clouds'. The development of sonant m into um is admitted for Thracian, Albanian, etc., but not for the Italic branch. Then, it is possible that the original designation of the river was "Pelasgian", a Balcaninc language with many points in common with Thracian. It is likely that the same ethnical name of the Umbrians (Greek Ombrici) came from that of the river, as they were called by the "Pelasgians" who first met them on the its shores. Thus, the Umbri are '(the people) of the Umbro fl.'.

Vesidia fl.

• Place: river Serravezza, province Lucca, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Vesidia fl. (Peut.)
• Etymology: The name of the stream can be compared with that of *Visentius fl. and explained as a full-grade *veis- (later developed as *ves- in an Italic environment) of the IE root *ueis- 'to flow, poison'.

*Visentius fl.

• Place: river Bisenzio, province Firenze, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: inferred from the survival of the name
• Etymology: It is the same of Visentium. Thus, the name should have meant 'the flowing (river)'.

Volaterrae

• Place: Volterra, province Pisa, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Volaterrae (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Liv., Peut.)
• Etymology: After having observed the Etruscan spellings velithri, velathri, the name has been explained from an Etruscan stem *vel-, possibly meaning 'hill' (UTET) and a 'locative' marker -thri. According to Zavaroni, the name is related to Latin volvo, -ere 'to turn', from an Etruscan appellative with a meaning of 'round, turning'. Actually, the Latin(ized) version has its own explanation, since it can be a compound vola-terra, in plural, where vola- is identical to Latin vola 'rounding of the hand', from the IE root *uel(e)- 'to turn, wind, round', and terra (*tersa) is 'earth', but in Oscan also 'territory'. Then, if the Latin version is not a folk-etymology, the name could be interpreted as 'rounded place(s)' and attributed to the Umbrian. The Etruscan form is an adaption (with *t>th) of this pre-existing name.

Igilium i.

• Place: island Giglio, province Grosseto, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Igilium i. (Plin., Mel., Caes.)
• Etymology: The name is surprisingly close to some of the IE names of the 'hedgehog', all coming from the root *eg'hi- 'hedgehog'. This may be only a coincidence, or the name of the island meant originally '(island) of the hedgehogs' or, more probably, '(island) of the sea urchins'. Another possibility is '(island) of the blackberries', since in Russian the name of the 'blackberry' derives from that of the 'hedgehog'. In all the cases, the name cannot be Italic but is fitted by the phonetic features (*g'h>g) of the "Pelasgian" as a centum language. Remark: with this I renounce the connection with Iguvium (Umbria)

Ilva i., Aethale i.

• Place: island Elba, province Livorno, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Ilva i. (Ptol., Plin.)
• Etymology: The name has been interpreted as Ligurian, after the tribe Ilvates living south of Po river (UTET). According to some source, there was another Ilva i. (Sardinia) in the same Thyrrenian domain. The Greek name Aethale 'soot, grime' refers to the furnaces that were present in the island.

Ocrasia

• Place: island Montecristo, province Livorno, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Oglasa i. (Plin.)
• Etymology: The name is not clear, according to some source it should be Ocrasia, which has the ending -asia like Planasia i. and a stem that could be related to Greek okris 'mountain-top'.

Urgo i.

• Place: island Gorgona, province Livorno, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: Urgo i. (Plin.)
• Etymology: The name has been explained from a stem *gorg, with the meaning of 'goat', the same of Capraria i. (UTET). But such a stem is rather dubious. Tentatively, the name may be derived from the zero-grade form *urg- of the IE root *urag'h- 'thorn, spike'. The origin of the name could be "Pelasgian" or from another "Tyrrhenian" stratum.

Conclusions

In the place-names of the wide region of Etruria at least tree different linguistic strata can be recognized. In the souther coast especially, many place-names show the result of a consonant shift of the type *b,d,g>p,t,k, *bh,dh,gh>b,d,g maybe accompanied by *p,t,k>ph,th,kh not denoted by the Roman sources bacause there were no aspirated stops in Latin, apart from f that could have denoted ph. These are typical features of the "Pelasgian" or pre-Greek language, postulated by linguists like Georgiev to explain the toponymy of southern Greece. It is not clear whether this language was an A-language (i.e, if it had a replacing *o), but it is rather clear that, unlike Thracian and Daco-Misian, it was a centum language. The presence of "Pelasgian"-like names in southern Etruria corresponds to what reported by various classical sources. On this subject, a more detailed discussion will follow later.

According to the oldest of these sources, the Pelasgians are often confused with the Tyrrheanians. But the former came from Arcadia, the latter maybe from Lydia and probably later. According to Pittau, the Tyrrhenians sojourned in Sardinia, being the Sardian (the people of the Nuraghes), for centuries, before to land in Etruria and become the Etrurians. In this case, it is likely that in Etruria they simply adopted the place-names they found, probably adapting them in their language. Some simple rules of such an adaption process can be derived. To a Latin p,t,k may correspond either f,th,ch or p,t,k. The place-names showing the first spelling (Caere/cheizra, Sutrium/shuthri, Tarquinia/tarchna, Volci/velch) have been reconstructed from a "Pelasgian" shift, namely *b,d,g>p,t,k. The place-names showing the second spelling (Cortona/curtun, Clusium/clevsi, Telamon/tlamu, Tarquinia/tarchna, Capena/capna, etc.) have instead been reconstructed from original (IE) *p,t,k. It is not completely clear what this means. Anyway, the origins of the Etruscan language is far from being clear. It is even disputed now if it were really non-IE or if it was at least partly IE, related in this case to the Anatolian branch or even to the "Pelasgian" language itself. This could explain the apparent confusion made in the classical sources between the two people. For this reason, and also because very few Etruscan toponymical appellatives have reached us, here no Etruscan etymologies have been given for the place-names.

The inhabitants of inner Etruria at the arrival of the Tyrrhenians/Etruscans were Umbrians or, according to other sources, Sicani. If these Umbrians are the Tabulae Iguvinae ones, and were speaking an Eastern Italic language, various place-names of inner, central and northern Etruria can be explained, including the ones showing f's, or features like *ei>e, *gw>b. In addition, there is a clear Eastern Italic presence in the region of the Faliscans, who were close to the Sabines, but later strongly influenced by the Etruscans. They can be the last remnaint of the Eastern Italic branch west of the Tiber river.

As for the Sicani, it will be shown in a future page that the most ancient linguistic stratum of Sicily and Liguria shared an exclusive consonantic shift, with *bh,dh,gh>p,t,k. This "Ligurian" stratum could explain at least one place-name in northern Etruria, and is not in contrast with many others.

Last modified: July 11, 2002
by Antonio Sciarretta
email me