Hirundo senegalensis  MOSQUE SWALLOW.  Savanna woodland, forest clearings, towns.  From Senegambia e through s Mali, s Niger, s Chad and c,s sudan to w,c Ethiopia and s Somalia, s incl. Mafia I. off Tanzania, to n Namibia, n Botswana, Zambia, n,e Zimbabwe, s Mozambique and ne S. Africa in e Transvaal and n Natal.
Hirundo daurica  RED-RUMPED SWALLOW.  Open country, towns.

Some of the allopatric populations may be separate species.
 H. d. rufula.  From Iberian Pen., s France, Corsica, Italy, s Balkans, Greece and Cyprus, and from Morocco to w Algeria e through w,s Turkey, Near East, ne Iraq, s Iran, n Afghanistan and from Transcaspia e to Turkestan and e Kazakhstan to n Pakistan, nw India in the Himalayas, 1000-3300 m in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, and probably w China; sw Arabia; locally in mts. in Sierra Leone and Cameroon; highlands from C. African Rep., e Zaire, extreme se Sudan, s Ethiopia and n Somalia, s through Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania to se Zaire, n Zambia and Malawi.
 H. d. melanocrissus.  Highlands of w,c Ethiopia.
 H. d. daurica.  From the Irtysh River area in Kazakhstan, s Siberia from Altai e through Transbaicalia and L. Baikal region to Amurland and Ussuriland, Korea, c.s Japan from c Honshu to Kyushu, and Izu Is., s through c,e China to India and se Tibet.

H. d. hyperythra.  Sri Lanka.

Hirundo domicella  WEST AFRICAN SWALLOW.  Open country, towns.  Lowlands from Senegambia and Guinea e across s Mali, n Ghana, c Beni, s Niger, Nigeria and n,c Cameroon to s Sudan (exc. extreme se) and extreme cw Ethiopia.  Often included in H. daurica -- which may be correct.

Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire (1993, p. 349) do not accept the separation of domicella from daurica, noting that H. daurica has a wide range (see above) and that other populations should be studied before such a conclusion is drawn -- and that much of the area involved has not been explored.  This is one of many such situations which are products of differing species concepts and lack of detailed evidence.

Hirundo striolata  STRIATED SWALLOW.  Open country, towns.  Lowlands to 1200 m from sw China, ne India and Taiwan, s through se Asia to Sumatra (possibly), Java, Borneo, Lesser Sunda Is. e to Wetar and Timor, and Philippines (except from Mindanao to Sulu Arch).  Sometimes included in H. daurica.
 Hirundo spilodera group:  H. perdita, preussi, rufigula, spilodera.  All occur in Africa.  H. perdita glossy blue-black above and throat; rump gray; buffy-orange breast band and crissum; white belly; preussi back and crown blue-black; red spot behind eye; buffy rump and below; shallow tail fork; rufigula like preussi without red spot and darker rufous rump and underparts; spilodera similar, with red lores, spotted buffy throat, rusty rump.  Colonial nesters; gourd-shaped nests of mud with short, tubular entrances, facing downward; often several hundred or more nests clustered together; under bridges, eaves, rock faces, etc.  Eggs 1-4, usually 3, white with reddish, purple, gray markings.

Hirundo perdita  RED SEA SWALLOW.  Open country.  Known only from the type specimen found dead on the Red Sea coast of Sudan; presumably breeding in the hills of ne Sudan and n Ethiopia.  There have been possible sight records in Ethiopia (Madge and Redman, 1989. Scopus 13:126-129).
Hirundo preussi  PREUSS'S SWALLOW.  Open country, towns.  From Guinea-Bissau (possibly), Sierra Leone and s Mali e to Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, n Ghana, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad and ne Zaire.  Sometimes considered conspecific with rufigula, but they differ and are allopatric.
Hirundo rufigula  RED-THROATED SWALLOW.  Open country, towns.  From Gabon, Congo River mouth and sc Zaire s to c Angola and nw Zambia.

Hirundo spilodera  SOUTH AFRICAN SWALLOW.  Open country, towns.  Sw Zimbabwe, s Zaire, Botswana, Namibia and S. Africa in Transvaal, Orange Free State, w Natal and n,e Cape Province.
Hirundo pyrrhonota  CLIFF SWALLOW.  Open country, usually near water, towns.  From w,c Alaska, c Yukon, n Mackenzie, c Keewatin and n Manitoba e across ec,se Canada to New Brunswick, Prince Edward I. and Nova Scotia and s to sc,s Alaska, n Baja Calif., Oaxaca, Veracruz, s Texas, sw Louisiana, n portions of Gulf states, w S. Carolina and s N. Carolina; locally in s Florida in Lake Okeechobee area.

Often placed in Petrochelidon.  Nests in colonies, often of 1000-3000 pairs; retort-shaped nest of mud pellets with tubular opening, plastered on vertical surface under an overhanging rock, under eaves, bridges, culverts or similar locations; lined with grass, feathers; built in 5-14 days; may be repaired and reused.  Other birds often use vacant nests, including House Sparrow and Plain Titmouse.  House Sparrow may usurp a nest.  Intraspecific brood parasitism apparently frequent; cowbird parasitism rare.  Eggs 3-6, white, creamy, or pinkish white with reddish-brown spots.

Hirundo fulva  group:  Cave (H. fulva) and Chestnut-collared (H. rufocollaris) swallows.  The Cave Swallow occurs from the sw U.S. to Ecuador and the Greater Antilles.  It hybridizes in a few places with H. rustica.  Plumage similar to Cliff Swallow, but forehead rufous and throat buffy.  The Chestnut-collared Swallow occurs in a narrow strip from sw Ecuador to nw Peru; similar to Cave Swallow but throat and cheeks white; nuchal collar rufous.  Nest of Cave Swallow is an open cup of mud, plastered to an overhanging rock, culvert, bridge.  Nest of Chestnut-collared is an enclosed ball-shaped or retort-shaped structure with a side entrance often extended as a short tube, much like that of a Cliff Swallow; in colonies on cliffs or under eaves.  The taxonomic relationships among the Cliff, Cave and Rufous-collared swallows remain unclear, and the occasional hybridization between Cave and Barn swallows indicates close genetic relationship between the rustica group and the fulva group.

Hirundo fulva  CAVE SWALLOW.  Open country, ravines, towns.

These two groups, which are not in contact, sometimes are treated as separate species.
 H. f. pelodoma.  From s Arizona, se New Mexico and w,sc,se Texas s in n Mexico to e Durango, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí and w Tamaulipas; rapidly expanding its range in recent years.
 H. f. fulva.  C Chiapas, Yucatán and Quintana Roo; s Florida; Cuba, Isle of Pines, Hispaniola, Gonâve I., Tortue and Vieques islands, and Î.-à-Vache, Jamaica and Puerto Rico.

Hirundo rufocollaris  CHESTNUT-COLLARED SWALLOW.  Open country, ravines, towns.  In extreme sw Ecuador in Guayaquil and Loja, and w Peru s to Lima.  Sometimes treated as a race of H. fulva.
Hirundo nigricans  TREE MARTIN.  Open woodland, towns.  Lesser Sunda Is. of Timor and Flores; Australia; possibly s New Guinea.  Has been placed in Cecropis.

Glossy blue-black above with whitish rump, rufous forehead; buffy-white below; black tail with shallow notch.  Nests in small colonies; nest of grass and leaves in a hollow tree limb, the opening sometimes partly closed with mud; several pairs may share a single tree-hollow; also nests in holes in cliffs or buildings, or usurps nest of Fairy Martin.  Eggs 3-5, pinkish white flecked with pale rufous at larger end.

Hirundo ariel  group:  Streak-throated Swallow (H. fluvicola) and Fairy Martin (H. ariel).  The Streak-throated Swallow occurs in s Asia from Afghanistan to India; the Fairy Martin in Australia and Tasmania.  H. fluvicola is glossy steel-blue above; crown dark rufous; rump brownish; below buffy-white with dark streaks.  H. ariel dull blue-black above; crown rufous; rump and underparts white.  Both species are colonial, often with many nests run together in a single mass; nest gourd-shaped of mud pellets with tubular entrances 5-30 cm long; colonies under bridges, arches, eaves, overhanging rock faces, in caves, hollow trees, etc.  Nest chamber lined with grass, feathers; eggs 3-5, white with rufous or yellowish spots.

Hirundo fluvicola  STREAK-THROATED SWALLOW.  Open country near water, towns.  Lowlands to 1000 m in ne Afghanistan, n Pakistan and n,c,peninsular India w to Gujarat, c Rajasthan and Punjab, n to foothills of the Himalayas, and e to w Nepal, Bihar and Orissa.  Closely related to ariel.
Hirundo ariel  FAIRY MARTIN.  Open woods near water, towns.  Australia except extreme n Queensland, extreme sw W. Australia.  Ranges to Timor and New Guinea.
Hirundo fuliginosa  FOREST SWALLOW.  Forest, towns.  Lowlands from Nigeria and s Cameroon s to Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) and c Gabon.

12 cm.  Entirely dark brown; crown black with bluish gloss; chin and throat tinged with rufous; tail slightly forked.  Nest a hemispherical chamber of mud pellets with one or two short, tubular, openings; plastered to rock surface of cave roof or in rock crevice in forest; chamber lined with plant down; eggs 2-3, white or with few pale rufous spots; solitary nester, but may be a cooperative breeder since four adults slept in one nest.

Delichon:  House-Martins  Delichon is closely related to the Petrochelidon complex in Hirundo and may be included in Hirundo.  Eurasia, nw Africa.  Northern House-Martin (D. urbica) occurs across Eurasia, nw Africa; glossy blue-black above; rump and underparts white; tail short, notched.  Tarsi feathered in all three species.  Asian House-Martin (D. dasypus) is often considered conspecific with urbica and called D. u. cashmeriensis by some authors, but it is probably sympatric with urbica in eastern Asia (n. Pakistan); dasypus is like urbica in plumage, but is grayish-white below with black-tipped upper tail coverts.  Nepal House-Martin (D. nipalensis) like urbica, with a broken white collar on hindneck; chin, throat and crissum black.  All species colonial; nest a hemispherical structure of mud pellets plastered to a vertical surface; a small, rounded aperture at the top rim or just below; lining of grass, feathers; 3-5 white eggs.

Delichon urbica  NORTHERN HOUSE-MARTIN.  Open country, towns.  From British Isles, Shetland Is. and n Scandinavia e across n Russia and n Siberia to w Anadyrland, Sea of Okhotsk and Sakhalin, s to nw Africa from Morocco e to n Libya, n Mediterranean region incl. most islands, Turkey, Near East, n Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkestan and e Kazakhstan, but absent from region between Caspian Sea e to Lake Balkhash; nw India in the Himalayas, 3000-4500 m of n Kashmir and Ladakh, w China in w,n Sinkiang, Mongolia and Manchuria in Heilungkiang; small colonies sometimes breed in s Africa (e.g., Botswana) apparently European birds that remain after migration.
Delichon dasypus  ASIAN HOUSE-MARTIN.  Open country, towns.  Mts. to 5000 m, mostly above 1500 m, in n Pakistan in Gilgit, n India from Kashmir e to Arunachal Pradesh, s Tibet, c,se China, Korea, se Siberia in Sakhalin, Kuril Is., Japan on Hokkaido, Honshu and Kyushu, and Taiwan.  Often included in urbica, but close approaches and probable sympatry at several places in e Asia indicates allospecies.

Delichon nipalensis  NEPAL HOUSE-MARTIN.  Open country, towns.  Himalayas, 1800-4000 m from nc India to w Burma and n Vietnam in nw Tonkin.
 Psalidoprocne:  Sawwings.  Africa.  Some authors recognize only five species with seven as subspecies of P. pristoptera.  Medium-sized swallows with rough outer edge of primaries in males due to barbs being curved.  Glossy black, blue or green, or unglossed brown; underwing coverts often white or gray; tail deeply forked, except in nitens; nest in a tunnel or on a ledge (fuliginosa); eggs 2-4, white.

Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire (1993, p. 349) question the recognition of several populations as species and suggest that the P. pristoptera group may consist only of nitens, pristoptera, obscura, albiceps and fuliginosa.  They acknowledge the possibility that "...the "species" P. pristoptera does indeed hide more than one biologically distinct taxon, but detailed study of various breeding populations ... is needed to determine any such important distinctions."  This can be said of many avian taxa.

Psalidoprocne nitens  SQUARE-TAILED SAWWING.  Forest.  From Sierra Leone e to s Cameroon and n,ne Zaire, and s to Congo River mouth and c,ce Zaire.  Blackish-brown with greenish gloss above and below; tail not forked.  Solitary nester in a tunnel, chamber lined with lichens, moss.
Psalidoprocne fuliginosa  MOUNTAIN SAWWING.  Montane forest, clearings.  Mts. of sw Cameroon on Mt. Cameroon and Fernando Po Island in the Gulf of Guinea; recorded in Nigeria.  Dull brown above and below; tail forked; solitary nester or in small groups; nest of lichens, moss; on a ledge, in a hole, cave, inside building.
Psalidoprocne albiceps  WHITE-HEADED SAWWING.  Savanna, clearings.  S Sudan, Uganda, w Kenya, e Zaire, n,w,s Tanzania, Malawi, n Zambia and ne Angola.

Psalidoprocne pristoptera group: C, se, ne Africa.  The eight taxa here treated as species are geographically allopatric and similar in plumages; sometimes considered to be subspecies of pristoptera:  P. pristoptera, antinorii, oleaginea, mangbettorum, chalybea, petiti, orientalis, holomelas (holomelas, not holomelaena, is correct).  Plumages glossy purplish to greenish-black or brownish with white, gray or brown underwing coverts.  Male tail deeply forked; female less so.  Variations include depth of tail fork; extent of white or gray underwing area.  Solitary nesters or in small groups; nest in a tunnel dug by both adults in a sandy cliff, earth bank, stream bank; or in an abandoned bee-eater nest tunnel; nest chamber lined with lichens and dry grass.

Psalidoprocne chalybea  SHARI SAWWING.  Moist woodland, forest.  In extreme se Nigeria, Cameroon (exc. sw), C. African Rep., and n,ce Zaire (exc. extreme ne).
Psalidoprocne petiti  PETIT'S SAWWING.  Moist woodland, forest.  From se Nigeria and sw Cameroon s to Cabinda and lower Congo River.
Psalidoprocne mangbettorum  MANGBETTU SAWWING.  Moist woodland, forest.  In extreme ne Zaire and extreme sw Sudan.
Psalidoprocne oleaginea  ETHIOPIAN SAWWING.  Moist woodland, forest.  Sw Ethiopia.
Psalidoprocne pristoptera  BLUE SAWWING.  Moist woodland, forest.  Eritrea.

Psalidoprocne antinorii  BROWN SAWWING.  Moist woodland, forest.  Highlands of wc Ethiopia (=blanfordi) and c,s,ne Ethiopia (= antinorii).
Psalidoprocne orientalis  EASTERN SAWWING.  Moist woodland, forest.  From sw Gabon, Cabinda, s,se Zaire and s,ne Tanzania (incl. Usambara Mts.), s to sw,c,ne Angola, Zambia, Malawi, e Zimbabwe and adj. w Mozambique.
Psalidoprocne holomelas  BLACK SAWWING.  Moist woodland, forest.  Highlands in ce Zaire, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, w,c Kenya and ne,ce Tanzania s to Uluguru and Usambara mts.; ne Namibia, nw Botswana, se Zimbabwe, s Mozambique, e,s S. Africa in e Transvaal, Natal, s,e Cape Province.
Psalidoprocne obscura  FANTI SAWWING.  Ec Africa.  Moist woodland, forest.  From Senegambia e to e Nigeria, sw Cameroon and C. African Rep.  Male blackish-brown with green sheen; crown and throat white; black eyeline; female same but with variable white crown markings; tail forked.  Solitary nester in a tunnel in a dry site; nest of grass, lichens, feathers.

Family REGULIDAE:  Kinglets, Goldcrest, Flamecrest, Firecrest.  Coniferous and mixed forests in N.A. and Eurasia; Taiwan; Canary Is.
 9 cm.  Small, greenish above, whitish to yellowish below; white wing bars; differ mainly in crown markings:  Ruby-crowned Kinglet (R. calendula), w, n N.A., red crown patch; white eyering.  Goldcrest (R. regulus), Eurasia, male crown with orange center stripe, bordered black; female crown center yellow.  Canary Is. Kinglet (R. teneriffae), similar to R. regulus.  Flamecrest (R. goodfellowi), mts. of Taiwan, crown black with concealed orange patch, white superciliary, brown ear region, yellow rump, flanks.  Firecrest (R.ignicapillus) c, s Europe, male, center of crown red, bordered black, wide white superciliary, female crown yellow center.  Golden-crowned Kinglet (R. satrapa), male like calendula with crown center red, bordered by yellow and black stripes to white superciliary.  Feed on insects gleaned from foliage, often hover to take prey from leaves.  Nest a bulky purse-like structure of moss suspended from, or attached to, twigs or branchlets; eggs 5-10, white or buffy, usually with brown spots.

Regulus calendula  RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET.  Coniferous forest, mixed woods, muskeg.  From nw,nc Alaska, c Yukon, nw,s Mackenzie, n,c Alberta and n,c Saskatchewan e across c Canada to Labrador and Newfoundland, s in mts. to s Calif., c,s Arizona, sc New Mexico and ec Colorado, and e of the Rockies to c,ne Minnesota, ne Wisconsin, n Michigan, s Ontario, n New York, n Maine and Nova Scotia; Guadalupe I. off Baja Calif.
Regulus regulus  GOLDCREST.  Coniferous and mixed forest.  From British Isles and Scandinavia e across nw,c Russia to sw Siberia ( Altai, Lake Baikal) and s to Azores, n Mediterranean region, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily, Turkey, Syria, n Iran and Crimea, Caucasus; Himalayas to 4400 m in e Turkestan, ne Afghanistan, n Pakistan, n India from Kashmir e to Arunachal Pradesh, and c China, Manchuria, se Siberia to Sakhalin, s Kuril Is., and Japan.

Regulus teneriffae  CANARY ISLANDS KINGLET.  Coniferous and mixed forest.  Canary Islands.  Sometimes included in ignicapillus or in regulus.
Regulus goodfellowi  FLAMECREST.  Coniferous and mixed forest.  Mts. above 2000 m of Taiwan.
Regulus ignicapillus  FIRECREST.  Mixed or coniferous forest.  From s England and continental Europe e to c Poland and s Russia, Carpathian Mts., Crimea, w Caucasus, s to Madeira, Morocco to n Tunisia, n Mediterranean region incl. most islands (except Crete and Cyprus), and Turkey.
Regulus satrapa  GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET.  Coniferous forest, woods.  From s Alaska w to base of Alaska Pen., s Yukon, n Alberta and Saskatchewan e across s Canada to Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, s in mts. to s,e Calif., w,ne Nevada, s Utah, c,se Arizona, sc New Mexico, in highlands of Mexico to w Guatemala, and e of the Rockies to n,ec Minnesota, n Illinois, c Indiana, n Ohio, s Ontario, New York, and c New England, s in the Appalachians to e Tennessee and w N. Carolina.

Family PYCNONOTIDAE:  Finchbills, Bulbuls, Greenbuls, Bristlebills, Nicators.  Old World tropics, a few species in temperate areas of se Asia.  Sexes alike; rictal bristles and long bristles extending from nape; lush rump plumage.  Arboreal or in scrub, thickets.  Food: fruits, seeds, insects, nectar, pollen.  Nest an open cup of leaves and plant fibers in a tree; eggs whitish or pinkish with reddish-brown markings; variable.  Female builds nest, incubates.

Spizixos:  Finchbills.  S Asia.

20 cm.  Bills heavy, finchlike; live in scrub, second-growth.  Crested Finchbill (S. canifrons), head blackish with long crest; forehead, throat, cheeks gray; olive-green above; yellowish-green below.  Collared Finchbill (S. semitorques); like Crested with shorter crest; head, throat blackish; nape gray; white collar and lores; cheeks white-streaked.  Nest a shallow cup of curly vine tendrils, twigs, lined with grass, ferns; in low bushes or small trees; 2-4 dull pink eggs with reddish speckles.  Some are communal breeders.

Spizixos canifrons  CRESTED FINCHBILL.  Scrub, second growth, forest.  Hills, 1000-2500 m in e India, se Tibet, sw China, nw Thailand, n Laos and n Vietnam in nw Tonkin.
Spizixos semitorques  COLLARED FINCHBILL.  S China, Taiwan.  Scrub, second growth, towns.  C,s China, Taiwan and n Vietnam in nw Tonkin.
 Pycnonotus:  Six species occur in Africa, 36 in s, se Asia; most are common, vocal birds of second growth, gardens, woods, forests.

Most 10-18, up to 29 cm.  Plumages variable, some crested; most dull-colored, some with red, yellow, orange, black or white areas.

Pycnonotus zeylonicus  STRAW-HEADED BULBUL.  Riparian growth, scrub.  Lowlands to 1600 m in the Malay Pen., Sumatra, Nias, Java and Borneo.
Pycnonotus striatus  STRIPED BULBUL.  Forest.  Himalayas, 1200-2750 m in ne India, sw China, Burma, nw Thailand and n Vietnam.
Pycnonotus leucogrammicus  CREAM-STRIPED BULBUL.  Forest.  Highlands, 800-1900 m of Sumatra.
Pycnonotus tympanistrigus  SPOT-NECKED BULBUL.  Forest.  Foothills, 300-900 m of Sumatra.
Pycnonotus melanoleucos  BLACK-AND-WHITE BULBUL.  Forest, second growth.  Lowlands to 1800 m in peninsular Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra incl. Siberut, and Borneo.

Pycnonotus priocephalus  GREY-HEADED BULBUL.  Forest.  Lowlands to 1800 m of peninsular sw India in the western Ghats from extreme s Maharashtra, Goa and w Mysore s to Kerala.
Pycnonotus atriceps  BLACK-HEADED BULBUL.  Forest, edge, scrub, second growth.  Lowlands to 2450 m in e India, sw China, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, n Vietnam, Malaya, Andaman Is., Sumatra incl. Simeulue, Nias, Mentawai Is., Bangka and Belitung; Borneo incl. Maratua Is.; Java incl. Bawean I.; Bali; Calamian Is. and Palawan in the sw Philippines.
Pycnonotus melanicterus  BLACK-CRESTED BULBUL.  Forest, second growth, scrub.

Some allopatric populations may be separate species.
 P. m. flaviventris.  Lowlands to 2400 m in India, sw China and n Burma.
 P. m. gularis.  Peninsular India in the W. Ghats from w Mysore s to Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
 P. m. melanicterus.  Sri Lanka.
 P. m. dispar.  Se Asia except n Burma, Sumatra, Java and highlands of n Borneo.

Pycnonotus squamatus  SCALY-BREASTED BULBUL.  Forest.  Lowlands to 1200 m in Malay Pen., Sumatra, w,c Java and Borneo.
Pycnonotus cyaniventris  GREY-BELLIED BULBUL.  Forest, open woods.  Lowlands to 1000 m in Malay Pen., Sumatra incl. Sipura, and Borneo.
Pycnonotus jocosus  RED-WHISKERED BULBUL.  Forest edge, second growth, towns.  Lowlands to 1500 m in India, Burma, se China, se Asia (except s Malaya), Andaman Is.  Intro. Mauritius, e,se Australia, Nicobar Is., Hawaiian Is. on Oahu and Florida.
Pycnonotus xanthorrhous  BROWN-BREASTED BULBUL.  Scrub, second growth.  Himalayas, 1200-4300 m, rarely down to 600 m, in c,e,s China, se Tibet, ne,e,s Burma, nw Thailand, n Laos and n Vietnam.

Pycnonotus sinensis  LIGHT-VENTED BULBUL.  Second growth, farms.  Lowlands in s,se China, Hainan I., n,e Vietnam, Taiwan (exc. s) and s Ryukyu Is.
Pycnonotus taivanus  STYAN'S BULBUL.  Second growth, farms.  Coastal lowlands of e,s Taiwan.
 Pycnonotus cafer group: Of the following 11 species, six occur in Africa, five in Asia. The six African species listed below are barbatus, somaliensis, dodsoni, tricolor, nigricans, capensis.  The first four are often considered to be conspecific as the "barbatus group".  They are similar in plumages, have complex distributions and often hybridize, but no two forms hybridize in all areas of overlap.  The situation is complex and not easily reduced to a simple set of names.  The members of the barbatus group have brown heads, breasts, backs and tails; brownish or whitish below; crissum yellow or white.

"The allegation that P. somaliensis, dodsoni and tricolor occur in Ethiopia (plus barbatus) without interbreeding is not without question; but before accepting such, the East African List Committee would want to see more evidence of their "different ecological requirements".  For the time being we consider them all conspecific with barbatus.  (D. A. Turner, pers. comm.).  This statement refers to the text under P. barbatus in Sibley and Monroe 1990:583.  Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire (1993, p. 352) are critical of the Sibley and Monroe (1990) treatment (based on Hall and Moreau, 1970) which recognized the four species listed above -- but they note that "No critical collection of data for analysis has been made in any of these regions, and our knowledge remains as presented by Hall and Moreau (1970)."  However, they accept only two species (barbatus, nigricans) and note that their field experience "suggests that in most parts of Africa there is but one".  Clearly, the situation is complex and information is conflicting and incomplete.  Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire (1993) would include somaliensis, dodsoni and tricolor as subspecies of barbatus.  They may be right, but they also suggest that "the matter does require further investigation ...."  This is but one among many such problems that reflect ignorance of the details in nature, as well as different species concepts.  Whether viewed as one, two, three or four species -- members of the barbatus group occur in every country in continental Africa.

Pycnonotus barbatus  GARDEN BULBUL.  Woods, forest, second growth, towns, usually near water.

P. b. barbatus.  From Morocco e to n Tunisia; from Senegambia, Sierra Leone and Liberia e through s Mali, s Niger and s Chad to w Sudan, and s in wc Africa to Gabon and lower Congo River basin.
 P. b. arsinoe.  From Nile Valley of Egypt and n,c Sudan e to w,c Ethiopia.

Pycnonotus somaliensis  SOMALI BULBUL.  Bush, woods, usually in arid regions.  C,e Ethiopia and nw Somalia.

This species and the next two (three ?) species may be conspecific with barbatus; they are similar in plumages, have complex distributions and often hybridize.

Pycnonotus dodsoni  DODSON'S BULBUL.  Bush, woods, in arid regions.  C,se Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya (exc. w,sc).
Pycnonotus tricolor  DARK-CAPPED BULBUL.  Woods, forest edge, second growth, towns, usually near water.  From e,s Cameroon, s Chad, C. African Rep., c,s Sudan and c,sc Ethiopia s to s Angola, ne Namibia, n,e Botswana and e S. Africa in Transvaal, Natal, e Orange Free State, e Cape Province.
Pycnonotus nigricans  BLACK-FRONTED BULBUL.  Dry scrub, usually near water.  Arid regions from s Angola, Botswana and sw Zimbabwe s to Namibia and interior S. Africa e to Transvaal and Lesotho.

This species is viewed as a member of the cafer group; it should be included in the African barbatus group because it hybridizes with barbatus in Angola, Botswana and Transvaal, but they also occur in sympatry along range boundaries without interbreeding.

Pycnonotus capensis  CAPE BULBUL.  Dense scrub, riparian bushes.  Sw,s,e Cape Province in S. Africa.

Like nigricans, capensis is closely related to the members of the barbatus group.  P. capensis overlaps with nigricans and barbatus in s Cape Province without interbreeding.

The five Asian species of the cafer group are xanthopygos, leucotis, leucogenys, cafer, aurigaster.
Pycnonotus xanthopygos  WHITE-SPECTACLED BULBUL.  Woods, towns, second growth.  C,s Turkey, Near East, Sinai Pen. of Egypt and Arabia, except cn.  Has hybridized with barbatus in Egypt, may be conspecific.
Pycnonotus leucotis  WHITE-EARED BULBUL.  Dry scrub, farms, woods, mangroves, towns.  Lowlands to 1800 m from e,se Iraq, s Iran and cn Arabia e to s Afghanistan, Pakistan and w India n to Himalayan foothills and s to n Maharashtra and n Madhya Pradesh.  Closely related to leucogenys, may be conspecific.  They occasionally hybridize in w India (Sibley and Short 1959. Ibis 101:177-182).

Pycnonotus leucogenys  HIMALAYAN BULBUL.  Dry scrub, farms, woods.  Foothills and mts., 600-2750 m from e Afghanistan e in Himalayas to ne India in Assam.  Hybridizes with cafer in ne Pakistan, but occurs widely with cafer in w India without interbreeding.  Hybrids occur where one of the species is rare.
Pycnonotus cafer  RED-VENTED BULBUL.  Scrub, second growth, woods, towns.  Lowlands to 1800 m in e Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Burma and sw China.  Intro. n Arabia, Polynesia, Oahu. Hybridizes with leucogenys, see above.
Pycnonotus aurigaster  SOOTY-HEADED BULBUL.  Scrub, second growth, woods, towns.  Lowlands to 1800 m in s China, s,e Burma, Thailand (exc. pen.), Indochina, Java and Bali (possibly introduced).  Intro. Sumatra and Sulawesi.  Hybridizes with cafer in extreme e India.  P. aurigaster consists of several variable populations possibly reflecting a hybrid origin.

Pycnonotus eutilotis  PUFF-BACKED BULBUL.  Second growth, scrub, forest.  Lowlands in Malay Pen., Sumatra and Bangka, and Borneo.
Pycnonotus nieuwenhuisii  BLUE-WATTLED BULBUL.  Presumably forest or second growth.  Known from two specimens from two localities; nw Sumatra at 700 m; ne Borneo at 600 m.
Pycnonotus urostictus  YELLOW-WATTLED BULBUL.  Forest edge, open woods, second growth.  Lowlands to 1000 m of the Philippines on Luzon, Polillo Is., Catanduanes, Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Panaon, Dinagat, Siargao, Mindanao and Basilan.
Pycnonotus bimaculatus  ORANGE-SPOTTED BULBUL.  Second growth, scrub.  Highlands, 800-3000 m, in Sumatra, Java and Bali.

Pycnonotus finlaysoni  STRIPE-THROATED BULBUL.  Second growth, scrub.  Lowlands to 1000 m in sw China, Burma, Thailand, Indochina and Malaya.
Pycnonotus xantholaemus  YELLOW-THROATED BULBUL.  Thorn scrub, open forest.  Hills, 600-1200 m of s India.
Pycnonotus penicillatus  YELLOW-EARED BULBUL.  Open forest, woods.  Hills above 900 m of Sri Lanka.
Pycnonotus flavescens  FLAVESCENT BULBUL.  Open forest, edge, second growth, mossy forest.  Hills and mts., 500-3500 m in e India, Burma, sw China, nw Thailand, n,s Laos and n,c Vietnam; mts. 900-3500 m of n Borneo from Mt. Mulu and Mt. Murud e to Mt. Kinabalu.

Pycnonotus luteolus  WHITE-BROWED BULBUL.  Dry scrub, towns, second growth.  Lowlands to 1000 m of s India on coasts n to Gujarat, s Madhya Pradesh ans s W. Bengal; Sri Lanka.
Pycnonotus goiavier  YELLOW-VENTED BULBUL.  Second growth, scrub, towns, mangroves.  Lowlands, mostly coastal, up to 1500 m from s Burma in s Tenasserim, e to s Vietnam, interior Cambodia and mts. of Malaya; Sumatra incl. Riau and Lingga arch., Bangka and Belitung; Borneo incl. Maratua Is.; Java incl. Karimunjawa Is.; Bali, Lombok and the Philippines incl. the Sulu Arch.  Sulawesi where probably introduced.
Pycnonotus plumosus  OLIVE-WINGED BULBUL.  Forest edge, second growth, scrub.  Lowlands to 600 m in Malay Pen. incl. Tinggi I., Sumatra and most adj. small is., Borneo incl. Anambas, Balembangan, Banggi and Mallawli islands; Java incl. Bawean, Bali; sw Philippines on Calamian Is., Palawan and Cagayan Sulu.

Pycnonotus blanfordi  STREAK-EARED BULBUL.  Second growth, scrub, towns.  Lowlands to 1000 m of se Asia (except ne Burma, n Vietnam and s Malaya).
Pycnonotus simplex  CREAM-VENTED BULBUL.  Forest.  Lowlands to 1300 m in s peninsular Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra and Nias, Batu Is., Bangka, Belitung, Riau and Lingga arch.; Borneo and Anambas, Natuna and Balembangan is., and Java.
Pycnonotus brunneus  RED-EYED BULBUL.  Forest, second growth, scrub, edge.  Lowlands to 1000 m in Malay Pen., Tioman I., Sumatra and Nias, Banyak and Batu is., probably Bangka, and Borneo, Anambas, Karimata, Banggi and Larot islands.
Pycnonotus erythropthalmos  SPECTACLED BULBUL.  Forest.  Lowlands to 1000 m in Malay Pen., Sumatra, Nias, Banyak and Batu is., Lingga Arch., Bangka and Belitung; and Borneo.

Andropadus:  Greenbuls.  Confined to the forests of Africa; some species occupy small areas; most live in the forested belt across central Africa. Plumages are mainly uniform greenish, olive or brown, paler below with yellowish abdomen; some with gray heads; none crested.  Sixteen species are listed here, but only 11 are recognized by some authors, as noted below.

D. A. Turner (pers. comm.) offers the following comments: "Moyer and Stuart (in prep.) will present evidence for the lumping of the East African A. masukuensis with the West African nominate tephrolaemus.  Since tephrolaemus is the earlier name, the correct name for Shelley's Bulbul would become A. tephrolaemus.  At the same time East African montane greenbuls would change from tephrolaemus to nigriceps.  Within this complex the East African List Committee agree that the s Tanzanian form chlorigula is worthy of specific status, but the status of fusciceps and other s Tanzanian forms is currently unclear.  Meanwhile, the East African List Committee do not consider kakamegae worthy of specific status."  It seems best to await the publication of the Moyer and Stuart study before reorganizing the following arrangement.

Andropadus montanus  CAMEROON GREENBUL.  Forest.  Mts., 550-1800 m in Togo, possibly Nigeria, and Cameroon.
Andropadus masukuensis  SHELLEY'S GREENBUL.  Forest.  Mts., 900-2300 m in s Tanzania and n Malawi.
Andropadus kakamegae  KAKAMEGA GREENBUL.  Forest.  Mts., 900-2300 m in ne,ce Zaire, w Kenya and w Tanzania. Often treated as a subspecies of masukuensis; the two are allopatric.
Andropadus virens  LITTLE GREENBUL.  Open forest, edge, second growth.  Lowlands and mts. from Senegambia, Sierra Leone and Liberia e to Cameroon, Fernando Po I., C. African Rep., n,e Zaire, extreme s Sudan, Uganda, w,se Kenya and Tanzania, Mafia I. and Zanzibar, s to n,ne Angola, n Zambia, Malawi and n Mozambique.

Andropadus hallae  HALL'S GREENBUL, known from one specimen from e Zaire in the range of virens seems to be a melanistic individual of virens.  It is not recognized as a species by the East African List Committee (D. A. Turner, pers. comm.).

Andropadus gracilis  GREY GREENBUL.  Forest.  Lowlands from Sierra Leone, se Guinea and Liberia e to s Cameroon, C. African Rep., n,ne Zaire, Uganda and w Kenya, s to nw Angola and sw,sc,ce Zaire s to Lake Tanganyika.
Andropadus ansorgei  ANSORGE'S GREENBUL.  Forest.  Lowlands in a patchy distribution from Sierra Leone and Liberia e to s Cameroon, n,ne Zaire, w Uganda and w Kenya, s to n Angola and sw,sc,ce Zaire.
Andropadus curvirostris  PLAIN GREENBUL.  Forest.  Lowlands from Sierra Leone and Liberia e to s Cameroon, Fernando Po I., s C. African Rep., n,ne Zaire, s Sudan, Uganda and w Kenya, and s to nw Angola and sw,sc,ce Zaire.
Andropadus gracilirostris  SLENDER-BILLED GREENBUL.  Forest.  Lowlands to 2100 m from Sierra Leone, se Guinea and Liberia e to s Cameroon, Fernando Po I., sw C. African Rep., n,ne Zaire, s Sudan, Uganda and w Kenya, s to n Angola, se,cs,se Zaire and w Tanzania.

Andropadus importunus  SOMBRE GREENBUL.  Some isolated populations may be separate species.

A. i. insularis.  Dense brush, scrub.  Lowlands from s Somalia, e Kenya, Tanzania and Zanzibar, s to se Zambia, Malawi and n Mozambique.
 A. i. fricki.  Humid forest.  Highlands of c Kenya.
 A. i. importunus.  Humid forest.  Zimbabwe, sc,s Mozambique and se,s S. Africa in n,e Transvaal, Swaziland, Natal and sw,s,e Cape Province.

Andropadus latirostris  YELLOW-WHISKERED GREENBUL.  Humid forest.  Lowlands in the west to mts. in the east-central of w,c Africa from Sierra Leone, se Guinea and Liberia e to s Cameroon, Fernando Po I., n,ne Zaire, s Sudan, Uganda and w,nc Kenya, s to nw Angola, sw,sc,ec Zaire s to Lake Tanganyika and w Tanzania.
Andropadus tephrolaemus  GREY-THROATED GREENBUL.  Forest.  Mts. in se Nigeria, sw Cameroon and Bioko I.  A. tephrolaemus, nigriceps and chlorigula are sometimes considered conspecific, but their relationships are unclear; the first two differ vocally.
Andropadus nigriceps  MOUNTAIN GREENBUL.  Forest.  Locally in mts. in s Kenya, w,ce,sw Tanzania, extreme e Zambia, Malawi and ne Mozambique.  Differs vocally from tephrolaemus and may be more closely related to masukuensis.

Andropadus milanjensis  STRIPE-CHEEKED GREENBUL.  Forest.

The East African List Committee consider olivaceiceps to be a subspecies of milanjensis.  Vocalizations are identical from Zimbabwe n to Kenya.
 A. m. olivaceiceps  OLIVE-HEADED GREENBUL.  Forest.  Locally in mts. in se Kenya, ne,ce,sc,sw Tanzania, Malawi and extreme nw Mozambique.
 A. m. milanjensis.  Locally in mts. in extreme e Zimbabwe and cw Mozambique.

Calyptocichla serina  GOLDEN GREENBUL.  Second growth forest, forest canopy.  Locally from Sierra Leone e to s Cameroon, Bioko I., sw C. African Rep., and nc,ne,ce Zaire, s to Gabon and Congo River mouth.  Nest of dry leaves, plant fibers; in a fork at the end of a high branch in crown of tall tree.
 Baeopogon:  Honeyguide Greenbuls.  Short, broad bill; olive-green above, gray or buff below; tail short with three outer rectrices all, or partially, white, thus resembling honeyguides.
Baeopogon indicator  HONEYGUIDE GREENBUL.  Forest edge, second growth, riparian vegetation.  From Sierra Leone, se Guinea and Liberia e to Cameroon, s C. African Rep., n,ne Zaire, s Sudan, Uganda and w Kenya, and s to nw Angola, extreme nw Zambia and cs,se,ce Zaire.

Baeopogon clamans  WHITE-TAILED GREENBUL.  Locally in Cameroon, Rio Muni, w Gabon and ne Zaire.  These are disjunct populations.
Ixonotus guttatus  SPOTTED GREENBUL.  Forest, edge.  From Liberia e to s Cameroon, n,ne Zaire and w Uganda, s to sw,sc Zaire and nw Tanzania.

Olive-brown above with white or yellowish spots on lower back and tail; whitish to yellowish below; three outer rectrices white.  Cooperative breeder, 4-6 birds feed young in nest and after fledging.

Chlorocichla:  Greenbuls.  Africa, in thickets, scrub, forest edge, clearings; often in noisy groups.  Long, stout bills; long rictal bristles; tail rounded or slightly graduated; throat white or yellow.
Chlorocichla simplex  SIMPLE GREENBUL.  Forest, second growth.  From Sierra Leone, se Guinea and Liberia e to s Cameroon, s C. African Rep., n,ne Zaire and extreme s Sudan, s to nw,ne Angola and cs,c Zaire. Nest a small cup of twigs, plant fibers, cobwebs.  Eggs 1-2, glossy white to beige, pale olive, grayish; with reddish spots.
Chlorocichla flavicollis  YELLOW-THROATED GREENBUL.  Forest, thickets.  From Senegambia, Guinea and Sierra Leone e to Cameroon, C. African Rep., se Sudan, n,ne Zaire, Uganda and w Kenya, s to c,se Angola, w,c,n Zambia, n Malawi and w Tanzania. Geographically variable.  Probable cooperative breeder.  Nest, eggs, similar to simplex.

Chlorocichla falkensteini  YELLOW-NECKED GREENBUL.  Forest edge, second growth.  From s Cameroon, s C. African Rep., and Rio Muni s to sw Zaire and w Angola.
Chlorocichla flaviventris  YELLOW-BELLIED GREENBUL. Forest undergrowth, thickets, riparian growth.  From w,s Angola, Zambia, se Zaire, Tanzania, c,se Kenya and ne S. Africa in n,e Transvaal, Swaziland and Natal. Nest cup of twigs, grass, etc.; both sexes build; 2 eggs, variable.
Chlorocichla laetissima  JOYFUL GREENBUL.  Dense forest thickets, riparian forest.  Mts., 1150-1700 m in ne,ce,se Zaire, extreme se Sudan, Uganda, e Zaire, nw Kenya and extreme cn Zambia.
Chlorocichla prigoginei  PRIGOGINE'S GREENBUL.  Forest.  Locally in mts., 1200-1650 m, of ne Zaire, local and rare.  A recently described sibling species of laetissima.

Thescelocichla leucopleura  SWAMP GREENBUL.  Swampy areas with palms, Pandanus forest, cultivation.  From Sierra Leone, se Guinea and Liberia e to Cameroon, C. African Rep., n,ne Zaire and w Uganda, s to sw,cs,c Zaire.

Brownish-olive above; chin and throat whitish; breast olive with white shaft streaks; whitish to yellow below; 4 outer rectrices with large white tips.  Cooperative breeder.

Pyrrhurus scandens  LEAF-LOVE.  Often placed in Phyllastrephus.  Swampy forest, thickets, open forest in savanna.  Lowlands from Senegambia, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone e to c Cameroon, C. African Rep., n,ne Zaire, extreme s Sudan and w Uganda, s to cw,cs,se Zaire and extreme w Tanzania. Nest a small cup of leaves, grass, cobwebs; slung between twigs over a stream.  Eggs 2-3, whitish, buffy with brown marks. 
 Phyllastrephus:  Greenbuls, Brownbuls.  Forest undergrowth in Africa and Madagascar; the five Madagascar species have been assigned to Bernieria or Oxylabes and sometimes placed in the Timaliinae (babblers).  Plumages mainly brown or olive-green, some species yellow below; tail graduated or rounded, often rufescent.  Sexes differ in size.

The taxonomy of the species of Phyllastrephus is uncertain.  Plumages are so similar that they provide little information about relationships and there are no molecular data to provide objective evidence.

Phyllastrephus cabanisi CABANIS'S GREENBUL.  Forest.  Highlands above 1200 m from s Sudan, Uganda, w Kenya, w Tanzania and e Zaire to n Zambia and w to n,c Angola.

P. cabanisi, fischeri and placidus are allopatric taxa sometimes treated as conspecific; fischeri is vocally and morphologically distinct from the other two.  P. poensis (see below) may be a subspecies of cabanisi, or it may be closest to baumanni.

Phyllastrephus fischeri  FISCHER'S GREENBUL.  Coastal lowland forest and scrub.  Lowlands from se Somalia and e Kenya to coastal ne Mozambique.  Plumage similar to that of cabanisi.
Phyllastrephus placidus  PLACID GREENBUL.  Forest undergrowth, riparian scrub.  Highlands of e Africa from w,c Kenya e of Rift Valley, n,e,s Tanzania to n Zambia, Malawi and s to ne Mozambique.

The East African List Committee consider placidus conspecific with cabanisi.  The form sucosus is intermediate between the two, but vocally indistinguishable (D. A. Turner, pers. comm.).

Phyllastrephus terrestris  TERRESTRIAL BROWNBUL.  Mainly lowland riverine bush, dry thickets in savanna or acacia.  From s Angola, ne Namibia, Zambia, extreme se Zaire, s,e,ne Tanzania, c,se Kenya and s Somalia s to n,e Botswana, n,e Zimbabwe and e,s S. African in n,e Transvaal, Swaziland, Natal and s,e Cape Province. Nest a flimsy cup of twigs, stems on a branch or slung between twigs, near ground.
Phyllastrephus strepitans  NORTHERN BROWNBUL.  Arid scrub, thornbush, woods.  From n Uganda, extreme se Sudan, sc,s Ethiopia and s Somalia s through Kenya and e Tanzania to Mozambique border.  Similar to terrestris.
Phyllastrephus fulviventris  PALE-OLIVE GREENBUL.  Riparian undergrowth.  Sw Zaire, Cabinda and w Angola.

Phyllastrephus cerviniventris  GREY-OLIVE GREENBUL.  Riparian thickets, undergrowth, forest.  Nc,se Kenya, e,s Tanzania, Zambia (exc.sw), Malawi and n,c Mozambique.
Phyllastrephus baumanni  BAUMANN'S OLIVE-GREENBUL.  Forest undergrowth.  From n,e Sierra Leone and Liberia e to sw,cs Nigeria.
Phyllastrephus poensis  CAMEROON OLIVE-GREENBUL.  Humid forest.  Mts. above 1400 m in se Nigeria, Cameroon and Fernando Po I.  Closest relatives uncertain - baumanni or cabanisi?
Phyllastrephus hypochloris  TORO OLIVE-GREENBUL.  Forest, undergrowth.  Lowlands and mts. in ne Zaire, extrene se Sudan, Uganda and w Kenya.

Phyllastrephus lorenzi  SASSI'S GREENBUL.  Forest.  Known only from a few localities in ne,ce Zaire; patchy distribution, rare.
Phyllastrephus poliocephalus  GREY-HEADED GREENBUL.  Humid forest.  Mts. in Nigeria and sw Cameroon.
Phyllastrephus flavostriatus  YELLOW-STREAKED GREENBUL.  Forest.  Mts. and, in s, lowlands.  Patchy distribution in from ne,ce Zaire s to Lake Tanganyika and w Tanzania, sw,c Uganda and extreme se Kenya s through c,e,coastal Tanzania, s Malawi, e Zimbabwe and Mozambique to e S. Africa in Transvaal, Natal and extreme e Cape Prov.  P. alfredi may be a subspecies of flavostriatus, and is so treated by some authors.
Phyllastrephus alfredi  SHARPE'S GREENBUL.  Mt. rain forest.  Patchy distribution in extreme sw Tanzania and n Malawi.  This range is between the ranges of subspecies of flavostriatus.  General habits and voice like flavostriatus.

The ranges of the subspecies of  flavostriatus and that of alfredi are allopatric, each occupying a disjunct area of mountainous terrain.  Thus, the definition of alfredi as a separate species is based on its slightly different plumage coloration.  There is no objective way to decide whether alfredi is a race of flavostriatus or a separate species; either treatment may be defended and both are reasonable.  The East African List Committee consider alfredi conspecific with flavostriatus (D. A. Turner, pers. comm.).

Phyllastrephus debilis  TINY GREENBUL.  Coastal scrub, lowland forest, riparian forest.  Se Kenya, coastal to inland ne, se Tanzania, incl. foothills of Uluguru Mts., e Zimbabwe and c,s Mozambique; ne Tanzania in the Usambara Mts.  Smallest African bulbul. Nest a small, neat cup of plant fibers, grass, etc. bound with cobwebs in a fork or outer branches.  Eggs 2, light blue with brownish spots.
Phyllastrephus albigularis  WHITE-THROATED GREENBUL.  Lowland forest.  From Sierra Leone and Liberia e to s Cameroon, s C. African Rep., n,ne Zaire, extreme s Sudan, Uganda and extreme w Kenya, s to nw Angola and sc,ec Zaire.
Phyllastrephus icterinus  ICTERINE GREENBUL.  Forest undergrowth.  Lowlands of w,c Africa from Sierra Leone e to s Cameroon, Fernando Po I., sw C. African Rep., n,e Zaire and extreme w Uganda, s to Gabon and sc,ce Zaire.

Phyllastrephus leucolepis  LIBERIAN GREENBUL.  Humid forest.  Known only from two patches of rain forest in se Liberia.