By Prof. Doct. Chunsheng Zhou (周春生),
President of the Humanities College of Normal University, Shanghai[1]
Whereas
Western Greek Philosophy is concentrated on the verb "to be", Chinese
Ancient Philosophy shows that there was no necessary use of the copula
"is" in propositions. Instead there was a rich use of the
"metaphor" or Qu Pi, the ancient mandarin expression for metaphor. As
the pictogram 取譬 shows, it means literally: "taking example". If one tries to
compare this use with that in Western Philosophy, one could point out the
following aspects.
1. Qu Pi (取譬):
The
metaphor means a comparison between similar things, for instance in Confucius'
sentence on virtue:
"To be
able to judge of others by what is near in ourselves". Trying to make a
metaphor one should take an example from things nearby.
Or take two
phrases from Lao Tse:
"To
Tao all men under the heaven will come".
"The
impunity of things, loaded with the 'power', may be likened to that of an
infant". Here the comparison is between men who uses 'power', not being
punished, and children which are not punished for wrong doing.
Metaphor is
the way of learning.
Regarding
virtue, once a man asked Confucius about perfect virtue. Confucius said:
"Being able to practice five things, wherever under heaven, constitutes perfect
virtue"; that is: "gravity, generosity of soul, sincerity,
earnestness, and kindness" (text of the Analects). Confucius never gives a
definition, but refers to examples.
2. Qu Pi
and the predicative Linking Verb To Be:
What
corresponds to the Western copula "is", in Chinese is the verb shi
or wei. However, as Chinese linguistic science shows, it does not have
the function of a mere copula, a predicative linking verb; for it can be also
omitted. Further on, shi, seeing in its pictographic etymology 是, originally means verticality, upright,
correct.
3. The Being
in the Classic Western Philosophy:
In Chinese
Ancient Philosophy there is no ontology in the Western sense.
Lao Tse's
Tao is rather a way or law in nature, not understood as something existing in
itself. Also Confucius' thinking is concentrated on moral items, like Kindness,
Filial Piety etc., but not on being as existing in itself.
On the
contrary, Plato's doctrine of the two worlds conveys a dilemma, in the view of
modern criticism, which because taking logical terms as ontologically existing.
It becomes the dilemma of the Western philosophy. One can say that every
abstract universal term has its meaning only with reference to concrete things.
In Western
modern philosophy Kant's criticism pointed out that the metaphysical terms,
like Plato's Ideas, are nothing but logical forms of our thinking.
Also the
theory of Natural Law (for instance in Pufendorf) which tries to refer the
positive right to God realistically, in effect refers it only to God as an
Idea.
4. The
Chinese Cultural Interpretation of Qu Pi and Being:
Considered
more closely, the terms of Qu Pi and Being do not possess an ontological
or metaphysical meaning, but rather a social and cultural one, concerning, in
ancient times, the relationship between the king and the people.
- - -
Postscript of Prof. Dr. H. Seidl:
In my conversations with Professor
Zhou I was always impressed that, in spite of the differences between Western
and Chinese philosophy, we can observe, in Ancient times, some common wisdom in
both. There are, for instance, similar utterances in Socrates / Plato and
Confucius as well as in Laotse on virtues and rules of good life for every man
individually and towards the society.
However, the awareness of these common
features is overshadowed by the predominance of modern philosophies in Europe
today which do not dispose any longer of precise knowledge of Ancient and
Medieval philosophy. As a matter of fact, since China had opened the door for
European Philosophy, it took up, by preference, modern or contemporary Western
thinkers, with all their criticism on Ancient Greek philosophy, above all
metaphysics and ethics, by lack of more detailed studies. Hence, a clarifying
word on this point beforehand.
Philosophical schools of our times use
many terms from ancient and medieval traditions, like matter, form, substance,
concrete, abstract, universal, being etc., which have entered meanwhile in
ordinary European languages, from where nowadays philosophers take them up,
filling them with quite new meanings. Hence Professor Zhou and me were engaged
in re-gaining the concepts with their original meanings in classical Ancient
Greek philosophers (Presocratici, Plato, Aristotle, Stoics, Plotinus) in order
to confront them in their modern meanings today.
[1] Annotation of Prof. Dr. Horst Seidl: I had the
honour and joy to accompany Professor Zhou during his stay at Rome, in May
2008, invited by our Faculty of Philosophy of the Lateran University. From his
compendious article I compiled a short summary in order to publish it, with his
kind permission. At the end I have added a short Postscript in order to insert
this article in the larger context of our conversations.